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Theory">Photosynthesis Theory</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20556/photosynthetic-pigments-.html" title="Photosynthetic pigments ">Photosynthetic pigments </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15727/photosynthesis-experiments.html" title="Photosynthesis Experiments">Photosynthesis Experiments</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16980/genetics-activities-for-learning.html" title="Genetics Activities for Learning">Genetics Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17813/chromosomes-genes-alleles.html" title="Chromosomes genes & alleles">Chromosomes genes & alleles</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17822/human-genome-project.html" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17827/base-substitution-mutation.html" title="Base substitution mutation">Base substitution mutation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17859/chromosomes.html" title="Chromosomes">Chromosomes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17816/karyograms-and-non-disjunction.html" title="Karyograms and non-disjunction">Karyograms and non-disjunction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17814/introduction-to-meiosis.html" title="Introduction to Meiosis">Introduction to Meiosis</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17817/theoretical-genetics-1.html" title="Theoretical Genetics 1">Theoretical Genetics 1</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23787/stargardt-disease.html" title="Stargardt disease">Stargardt disease</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17818/theoretical-genetics-2.html" title="Theoretical Genetics 2">Theoretical Genetics 2</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17819/sex-linked-genes.html" title="Sex Linked Genes">Sex Linked Genes</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17825/is-genetics-an-embarrassment-to-biology-education-.html" title="Is genetics an embarrassment to biology education? ">Is genetics an embarrassment to biology education? </a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17809/hairy-hands-genetics-of-mid-digital-hair.html" title="Hairy Hands - genetics of mid-digital hair">Hairy Hands - genetics of mid-digital hair</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17810/pedigree-chart-phenotype-ratios.html" title="Pedigree Chart & Phenotype Ratios">Pedigree Chart & Phenotype Ratios</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17820/ia-maize-genetics-experiment.html" title="IA Maize Genetics Experiment">IA Maize Genetics Experiment</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17823/genetically-modified-organisms.html" title="Genetically Modified Organisms.">Genetically Modified Organisms.</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17824/introduction-to-cloning.html" title="Introduction to Cloning.">Introduction to Cloning.</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../33736/cloning-ethics-quiz.html" title="Cloning ethics - quiz">Cloning ethics - quiz</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17811/therapeutic-cloning-debate-.html" title="Therapeutic Cloning Debate ">Therapeutic Cloning Debate </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16981/ecology-activities-for-learning.html" title="Ecology Activities for Learning">Ecology Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17905/ecological-terms.html" title="Ecological terms.">Ecological terms.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17906/food-webs.html" title="Food Webs">Food Webs</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17927/mesocosm-lab.html" title="Mesocosm Lab">Mesocosm Lab</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23435/ecology-mini-investigation.html" title="Ecology mini investigation">Ecology mini investigation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../33629/ecology-field-trip-at-home.html" title="Ecology field trip - at home">Ecology field trip - at home</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17907/energy-flow.html" title="Energy Flow.">Energy Flow.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17912/carbon-cycle-skills.html" title="Carbon Cycle Skills">Carbon Cycle Skills</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17908/enhanced-greenhouse-effect.html" title="Enhanced Greenhouse Effect.">Enhanced Greenhouse Effect.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17909/climate-change.html" title="Climate Change.">Climate Change.</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16985/evolution-activities-for-learning.html" title="Evolution: Activities for Learning">Evolution: Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15988/evolution-introduction.html" title="Evolution introduction">Evolution introduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15990/variation-overproduction.html" title="Variation & overproduction">Variation & overproduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15989/evolution-examples.html" title="Evolution examples">Evolution examples</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19320/classification-binomial-names.html" title="Classification & binomial names">Classification & binomial names</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15991/classification-of-plants.html" title="Classification of Plants">Classification of Plants</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19306/plant-classification-quiz.html" title="Plant classification quiz">Plant classification quiz</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15993/classification-of-animals.html" title="Classification of Animals">Classification of Animals</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23751/classification-games.html" title="Classification games">Classification games</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18912/intro-to-cladistics.html" title="Intro to cladistics">Intro to cladistics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18910/reclassification-of-figworts-using-cladistics.html" title="Reclassification of figworts using cladistics">Reclassification of figworts using cladistics</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18027/humans-activities-for-learning.html" title="Humans Activities for Learning">Humans Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18028/digestion-enzymes-intro-.html" title="Digestion & Enzymes Intro ">Digestion & Enzymes Intro </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18029/ia-lipase-experiment.html" title="IA Lipase Experiment">IA Lipase Experiment</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18033/structure-of-the-digestive-system.html" title="Structure of the digestive system.">Structure of the digestive system.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18030/intestine-structure-function.html" title="Intestine Structure & Function.">Intestine Structure & Function.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18031/blood-and-blood-vessels.html" title="Blood and Blood Vessels">Blood and Blood Vessels</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18032/heart-dissection-diagram.html" title="Heart Dissection & Diagram">Heart Dissection & Diagram</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18026/controlling-heartbeat.html" title="Controlling Heartbeat">Controlling Heartbeat</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18590/blood-clotting-and-heart-disease.html" title="Blood clotting and heart disease.">Blood clotting and heart disease.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18117/antigens-and-antibodies-.html" title="Antigens and antibodies ">Antigens and antibodies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18180/hiv-and-aids.html" title="HIV and AIDS">HIV and AIDS</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18116/immune-system-.html" title="Immune System ">Immune System </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18115/alveoli-gas-exchange.html" title="Alveoli & gas exchange">Alveoli & gas exchange</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19330/ventilation-lung-disease.html" title="Ventilation & lung disease">Ventilation & lung disease</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18421/nerve-impulses.html" title="Nerve impulses.">Nerve impulses.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18461/synapses.html" title="Synapses">Synapses</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../31311/chemicals-which-affect-synapses.html" title="Chemicals which affect synapses">Chemicals which affect synapses</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19886/hormones-introduction.html" title="Hormones introduction">Hormones introduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19894/homeostasis-of-glucose.html" title="Homeostasis of Glucose.">Homeostasis of Glucose.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19907/harvey-and-the-search-for-ova.html" title="Harvey and the search for ova">Harvey and the search for ova</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19908/hormones-and-the-menstrual-cycle.html" title="Hormones and the menstrual cycle">Hormones and the menstrual cycle</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19927/hormones-in-ivf.html" title="Hormones in IVF">Hormones in IVF</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17178/additional-hl.html" title="Additional HL">Additional HL</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17917/hl-nucleic-acids-activities-for-learning.html" title="HL Nucleic Acids Activities for Learning">HL Nucleic Acids Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17918/dna-structure-extras-for-hl.html" title="DNA structure - Extras for HL">DNA structure - Extras for HL</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16141/dna-replication-for-hl-students.html" title="DNA Replication for HL Students">DNA Replication for HL Students</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17920/transcription-extras-for-hl.html" title="Transcription - extras for HL">Transcription - extras for HL</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../37259/extension-concept-hydrolysis-of-atp.html" title="Extension concept - Hydrolysis of ATP">Extension concept - Hydrolysis of ATP</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18048/translation-ribosomes.html" title="Translation & ribosomes">Translation & ribosomes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17921/four-levels-of-protein-structure.html" title="Four levels of protein structure">Four levels of protein structure</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18211/hl-metabolism-activities-for-learning.html" title="HL Metabolism Activities for Learning">HL Metabolism Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19840/activation-energy-and-enzyme-pathways.html" title="Activation energy and enzyme pathways">Activation energy and enzyme pathways</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19850/emergency-room-activity-enzyme-inhibition.html" title="Emergency room activity - enzyme inhibition">Emergency room activity - enzyme inhibition</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19865/toxicology-training-course.html" title="Toxicology training course">Toxicology training course</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17923/end-product-inhibition-of-enzymes.html" title="End product inhibition of Enzymes.">End product inhibition of Enzymes.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17922/hl-respiration-introduction.html" title="HL Respiration introduction">HL Respiration introduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16207/glycolysis-and-the-krebs-cycle.html" title="Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle">Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18214/electron-transport-chain.html" title="Electron transport chain">Electron transport chain</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16209/chloroplasts-and-photosynthesis.html" title="Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis">Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16210/light-dependent-reactions.html" title="Light Dependent Reactions">Light Dependent Reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16211/light-independent-reactions.html" title="Light Independent Reactions">Light Independent Reactions</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17720/hl-plant-biology-activities-for-learning.html" title="HL Plant Biology - Activities for Learning">HL Plant Biology - Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17726/leaf-stomata-transpiration.html" title="Leaf stomata & transpiration">Leaf stomata & transpiration</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17721/vascular-tissues-introduction.html" title="Vascular tissues - introduction">Vascular tissues - introduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17723/transport-in-xylem.html" title="Transport in xylem">Transport in xylem</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17727/experiments-on-transpiration.html" title="Experiments on Transpiration.">Experiments on Transpiration.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17724/transpiration-and-xerophytes-.html" title="Transpiration and Xerophytes ">Transpiration and Xerophytes </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17763/phloem-and-translocation.html" title="Phloem and translocation">Phloem and translocation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17722/meristems-and-growth.html" title="Meristems and Growth.">Meristems and Growth.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17804/hormonal-control-in-plants.html" title="Hormonal control in plants">Hormonal control in plants</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17725/reproduction-in-angiosperms.html" title="Reproduction in angiosperms.">Reproduction in angiosperms.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17808/seeds-flowering-phytochromes.html" title="Seeds, flowering & phytochromes">Seeds, flowering & phytochromes</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17888/hl-genetics-activities-for-learning.html" title="HL Genetics Activities for Learning">HL Genetics Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17889/meiosis.html" title="Meiosis.">Meiosis.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17890/di-hybrid-crosses.html" title="Di-Hybrid Crosses.">Di-Hybrid Crosses.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17892/polygenic-inheritance.html" title="Polygenic Inheritance.">Polygenic Inheritance.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17891/gene-linkage-1.html" title="Gene Linkage 1">Gene Linkage 1</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17894/gene-linkage-2.html" title="Gene Linkage 2">Gene Linkage 2</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17901/gene-pools.html" title="Gene pools">Gene pools</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19670/polyploidy.html" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19559/hl-animal-physiology-activities-for-learning.html" title="HL Animal Physiology Activities for Learning">HL Animal Physiology Activities for Learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19560/antibody-production.html" title="Antibody production">Antibody production</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19566/monoclonal-antibodies.html" title="Monoclonal antibodies">Monoclonal antibodies</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19565/vaccination.html" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19561/muscles-joints.html" title="Muscles & joints">Muscles & joints</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19564/muscle-structure-function.html" title="Muscle structure & function.">Muscle structure & function.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19681/osmoregulation.html" title="Osmoregulation">Osmoregulation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19562/kidney-and-nephrons.html" title="Kidney and nephrons.">Kidney and nephrons.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18813/gamete-formation.html" title="Gamete formation">Gamete formation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16365/fertilization-blastocyst.html" title="Fertilization & blastocyst">Fertilization & blastocyst</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20080/pregnancy-and-birth.html" title="Pregnancy and birth">Pregnancy and birth</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17193/options-.html" title="Options ">Options </a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21490/option-a-neurobiology-activities-for-learning.html" title="Option A - Neurobiology - Activities for learning">Option A - Neurobiology - Activities for learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21399/nervous-system-formation.html" title="Nervous system formation">Nervous system formation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21401/synapses-and-nervous-system-plasticity.html" title="Synapses and nervous system plasticity">Synapses and nervous system plasticity</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21519/brain-structure-and-function.html" title="Brain structure and function">Brain structure and function</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21520/the-cerebral-cortex.html" title="The Cerebral cortex">The Cerebral cortex</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21525/sensory-receptors-and-smell.html" title="Sensory receptors and smell">Sensory receptors and smell</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21526/the-eye-and-photoreceptors.html" title="The eye and photoreceptors">The eye and photoreceptors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../33371/reflexes.html" title="Reflexes">Reflexes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../33372/conditioning-and-imprinting.html" title="Conditioning and imprinting">Conditioning and imprinting</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../25280/option-b-biotechnology-and-bioinformatics.html" title="Option B - Biotechnology and bioinformatics">Option B - Biotechnology and bioinformatics</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32571/batch-fermentation-and-continuous-culture.html" title="Batch fermentation and continuous culture">Batch fermentation and continuous culture</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../25411/cryptic-messages-bioinformatics-introduction.html" title="Cryptic messages - bioinformatics introduction">Cryptic messages - bioinformatics introduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../25364/orf-activity.html" title="ORF activity">ORF activity</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22063/option-c-ecology-activities-for-learning.html" title="Option C - Ecology Activities for learning">Option C - Ecology Activities for learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22081/describing-communities.html" title="Describing communities">Describing communities</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22083/limits-and-zones-lab.html" title="Limits and zones lab">Limits and zones lab</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22084/symbiosis-v-competitive-exclusion.html" title="Symbiosis v Competitive exclusion">Symbiosis v Competitive exclusion</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22085/modelling-energy-flow.html" title="Modelling energy flow">Modelling energy flow</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22086/predicting-ecosystems.html" title="Predicting ecosystems">Predicting ecosystems</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22089/modelling-nutrients.html" title="Modelling nutrients">Modelling nutrients</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22088/disturbance-vs-diversity.html" title="Disturbance vs Diversity">Disturbance vs Diversity</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22807/invasive-species.html" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22810/biomagnification.html" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22958/plastic-debris.html" title="Plastic debris">Plastic debris</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23153/indicator-species-biotic-index.html" title="Indicator species & biotic index">Indicator species & biotic index</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23154/conservation-methods.html" title="Conservation methods">Conservation methods</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22059/biodiversity-estimations.html" title="Biodiversity estimations">Biodiversity estimations</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22060/lincoln-index-activities.html" title="Lincoln Index activities">Lincoln Index activities</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../27387/population-growth-curves.html" title="Population growth curves">Population growth curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../27433/fisheries-and-populations.html" title="Fisheries and populations">Fisheries and populations</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18998/nitrogen-cycle-applications.html" title="Nitrogen cycle - applications">Nitrogen cycle - applications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../28235/phosphorus-cycle.html" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20088/option-d-human-physiology-activities-for-learning.html" title="Option D - Human physiology Activities for learning">Option D - Human physiology Activities for learning</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20215/is-it-so-bad-to-eat-only-pizza.html" title="Is it so bad to eat only pizza?">Is it so bad to eat only pizza?</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20220/appetite-and-malnutrition.html" title="Appetite and malnutrition">Appetite and malnutrition</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20284/exocrine-glands.html" title="Exocrine glands">Exocrine glands</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20300/control-of-digestive-secretions.html" title="Control of digestive secretions">Control of digestive secretions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20259/a-miracle-cure-for-ulcers.html" title="A miracle cure for ulcers">A miracle cure for ulcers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20664/liver-structure-function.html" title="Liver structure & function.">Liver structure & function.</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20665/jaundice-liver-function.html" title="Jaundice & liver function">Jaundice & liver function</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20692/cardiac-muscle-myogenic-control.html" title="Cardiac muscle & myogenic control">Cardiac muscle & myogenic control</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20707/cardiology-role-play.html" title="Cardiology Role play">Cardiology Role play</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../24113/epidemiology-framingham-heart-study.html" title="Epidemiology - Framingham heart study">Epidemiology - Framingham heart study</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20706/pituitary-gland-and-hormones.html" title="Pituitary gland and hormones">Pituitary gland and hormones</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20732/oxygen-dissociation-curves.html" title="Oxygen dissociation curves">Oxygen dissociation curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20708/carbon-dioxide-and-bohr-shift.html" title="Carbon dioxide and Bohr shift">Carbon dioxide and Bohr shift</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17622/the-investigation.html" title="The Investigation">The Investigation</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21187/individual-investigation-skills-introduction.html" title="Individual investigation - skills introduction">Individual investigation - skills introduction</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17179/practical-scheme-of-work.html" title="Practical Scheme of Work">Practical Scheme of Work</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../16860/lab-protocols-for-the-biology-ib-guide.html" title="Lab protocols for the Biology IB guide">Lab protocols for the Biology IB guide</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17623/planning-for-skills-progression.html" title="Planning for skills progression">Planning for skills progression</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17624/personal-engagement.html" title="Personal Engagement">Personal Engagement</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19063/personal-engagement-personality-quiz.html" title="Personal Engagement - personality quiz">Personal Engagement - personality quiz</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34461/three-ways-to-choose-a-topic-for-the-ia.html" title="Three ways to choose a topic for the IA">Three ways to choose a topic for the IA</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17625/exploration.html" title="Exploration">Exploration</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23429/focusing-a-research-question.html" title="Focusing a research question">Focusing a research question</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17626/analysis.html" title="Analysis">Analysis</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26255/ia-analysis-anova-or-t-test.html" title="IA Analysis - ANOVA or t-test?">IA Analysis - ANOVA or t-test?</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17627/evaluation.html" title="Evaluation">Evaluation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17628/communication.html" title="Communication">Communication</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../38973/ia-ideas-during-a-pandemic-2020-21.html" title="IA ideas during a pandemic 2020-21">IA ideas during a pandemic 2020-21</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30218/ia-avoiding-common-errors.html" title="IA - Avoiding common errors">IA - Avoiding common errors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34356/ia-experiments-that-could-be-done-at-home.html" title="IA Experiments that could be done at home">IA Experiments that could be done at home</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34574/ia-experiment-ideas-inspired-by-youtube.html" title="IA experiment ideas inspired by Youtube">IA experiment ideas inspired by Youtube</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../15992/6-ecological-ideas-for-your-ia.html" title="6 Ecological ideas for your IA">6 Ecological ideas for your IA</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20852/30-investigation-ideas-for-biology-ia.html" title="30 investigation ideas for Biology IA">30 investigation ideas for Biology IA</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../39689/investigating-strawberries-with-a-glucose-test-meter.html" title="Investigating strawberries with a glucose test meter">Investigating strawberries with a glucose test meter</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23240/16-new-experiment-ideas-for-biology-ia.html" title="16 new experiment ideas for Biology IA">16 new experiment ideas for Biology IA</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26171/12-investigation-ideas-with-a-biological-twist.html" title="12 Investigation ideas with a biological twist.">12 Investigation ideas with a biological twist.</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26186/body-temperature-data.html" title="Body temperature data">Body temperature data</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19329/ia-investigation-marking-sheet.html" title="IA Investigation - marking sheet">IA Investigation - marking sheet</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21859/marking-rigour-ia-assessment-criteria.html" title="Marking rigour & IA assessment criteria.">Marking rigour & IA assessment criteria.</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a class="" href="../18404/quizzes-tests-revision.html" title="Quizzes tests & revision">Quizzes tests & revision</a></li><ul class="level-1 expanded"><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../17665/the-exams.html" title="The Exams">The Exams</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19051/describing-trends-in-ib-graphs.html" title="Describing trends in IB graphs">Describing trends in IB graphs</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20791/paper-3-section-a-questions.html" title="Paper 3 Section A - questions">Paper 3 Section A - questions</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26073/graphical-analysis-skills-for-life.html" title="Graphical analysis - skills for life!">Graphical analysis - skills for life!</a></li></ul></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a class="" href="../18403/a3-topic-revision-sheets.html" title="A3 topic revision sheets">A3 topic revision sheets</a></li><ul class="level-2 expanded"><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18405/topic-1-cells-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 1 - Cells revision activities">Topic 1 - Cells revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22372/topic-1-cells-sl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 1 - Cells SL revision list">Topic 1 - Cells SL revision list</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a class="" href="../19003/topic-2-molecular-biology-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 2 - Molecular biology revision activities">Topic 2 - Molecular biology revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 expanded"><li class="current" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="topic-2-bio-molecules-sl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 2 - Bio molecules SL revision list">Topic 2 - Bio molecules SL revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../18999/topic-3-genetics-sl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 3 - Genetics SL revision activities">Topic 3 - Genetics SL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22378/topic-3-genetics-sl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 3 - Genetics SL revision list">Topic 3 - Genetics SL revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19480/topic-4-ecology-sl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 4 - Ecology SL revision activities">Topic 4 - Ecology SL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22395/topic-4-ecology-revision-list.html" title="Topic 4 - Ecology revision list">Topic 4 - Ecology revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19006/topic-5-evolution-sl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 5 - Evolution SL revision activities">Topic 5 - Evolution SL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22474/topic-5-evolution-revision-list.html" title="Topic 5 - Evolution revision list">Topic 5 - Evolution revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20121/topic-6-human-physiology-sl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 6 - human physiology SL revision activities">Topic 6 - human physiology SL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22396/topic-6-human-physiology-revision-list.html" title="Topic 6 - Human physiology revision list">Topic 6 - Human physiology revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20196/topic-7-nucleic-acids-hl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 7 - Nucleic acids HL revision activities">Topic 7 - Nucleic acids HL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20139/topic-7-nucleic-acids-hl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 7 - Nucleic acids HL revision list">Topic 7 - Nucleic acids HL revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20787/topic-8-metabolism-hl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 8 - Metabolism HL revision activities">Topic 8 - Metabolism HL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20198/topic-8-metabolism-hl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 8 - Metabolism HL revision list">Topic 8 - Metabolism HL revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20122/topic-9-plant-biology-hl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 9 - Plant biology HL revision activities">Topic 9 - Plant biology HL revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20773/topic-9-plants-hl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 9 - Plants HL - revision list">Topic 9 - Plants HL - revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20849/topic-10-genetics-hl-revision-activities.html" title="Topic 10 - Genetics HL Revision activities">Topic 10 - Genetics HL Revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20128/topic-10-genetics-hl-revision-list.html" title="Topic 10 - Genetics HL revision list">Topic 10 - Genetics HL revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Topic 11 - Physiology HL Revision activities">Topic 11 - Physiology HL Revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20115/topic-11-animal-physiology-revision-list.html" title="Topic 11 - Animal physiology revision list">Topic 11 - Animal physiology revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23821/option-a-neurobiology-revision-activities.html" title="Option A - Neurobiology - Revision activities">Option A - Neurobiology - Revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23822/option-a-neurobiology-sl-revision-list.html" title="Option A - Neurobiology SL Revision list">Option A - Neurobiology SL Revision list</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23831/option-a-neurobiology-hl-revision-list.html" title="Option A - Neurobiology HL Revision list">Option A - Neurobiology HL Revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../19001/option-c-ecology-revision-activities.html" title="Option C - Ecology revision activities">Option C - Ecology revision activities</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../27865/option-c-ecology-sl-revision-list-.html" title="Option C - Ecology SL revision list ">Option C - Ecology SL revision list </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../27863/option-c-ecology-hl-revision-list.html" title="Option C - Ecology HL revision list">Option C - Ecology HL revision list</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa 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<div id="main-column" class="span9"> <article id="topic-2-bio-molecules-sl-revision-list" style="margin-top: 16px;">
<h1 class="section-title">Topic 2 - Bio molecules SL revision list</h1>
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<p>This pages gives outline details of the content of the topic together with essential questions and student skills and applications. Helpful for revision.</p><h3>2.1 Molecules to metabolism</h3><p><u>Carbon based compounds</u></p><ul><li class="liWithoutP">Molecular biology explains biological processes in terms of the chemicals involved.</li><li class="liWithoutP">The is a diversity of Carbon based compounds in living things because carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds.<br> e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids.</li><li class="liWithoutP">All the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell make up its metabolism. There are two types:<ul><li class="liWithoutP">Anabolism: forming macromolecules from monomers by condensation.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Catabolism: breaking complex macromolecules into simpler molecules by hydrolysis.</li></ul></li><li>Some biological compounds can be synthesized ouside of living things: e.g. urea.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Questions<img alt="" height="129" src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/02_biochem/simple-molecules_smaller-1.jpg" style="float: right;" width="201"></strong></p><ul><li>How many covalent bonds can each or the molecules Carbon, Nitrogen Oxygen and Hydrogen form?</li><li>How does the number of covalent bonds formed by carbon, and the elements N, O and H influence the shapes and the structures of biological molecules?</li><li>Explain why hydrolysis reactions and condensation reactions are opposites?</li></ul></div><p><u>Drawing molecules</u></p><ul><li class="liWithoutP">Draw diagrams of:<ul><li class="liWithoutP">αD-glucose & βD-glucose,</li><li class="liWithoutP">D-ribose,</li><li class="liWithoutP">a fatty acid</li><li class="liWithoutP">an amino acid with generalised R-group.</li></ul></li><li class="liWithoutP">Identification of biochemicals from diagrams to include:<ul><li class="liWithoutP">monosaccharides</li><li class="liWithoutP">disaccharides,</li><li class="liWithoutP">lipids (triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids)</li><li class="liWithoutP">amino acids</li><li class="liWithoutP">polypeptides and peptide bonds.</li></ul></li><li class="liWithoutP">Knowledge of the Benedicts reagent test for reducing sugars and iodine to test for starch.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Questions</strong><img alt="" height="164" src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/02_biochem/ribose_tok_alphabeta.jpg" style="float: right;" width="184"></p><ul><li>Can you name and identify five biological molecules?<ul><li>Three monomers?</li><li>Three macromolecules?</li></ul></li><li>Can you draw αD-glucose then change it into βD-glucose,?</li><li>Which of the drawings on the right best represents D-ribose?</li><li>Can you write N-C-C on the page and turn it into an amino acid, with an R-group?</li><li>How can we test for the presence of different biological molecules using Benedict's reagent and Iodine?</li></ul></div><h3>2.2 Water</h3><ul><li class="liWithoutP">Hydrogen bonds form between polar water molecules.</li><li class="liWithoutP">This force give water special properties, e.g. cohesiveness, adhesiveness, thermal<br>and solvent properties.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Glucose, amino acids and salts are hydrophilic while cholesterol and fats are hydrophobic.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Compare the thermal properties of water with those of methane and explain how this affects its use a as a coolant in sweat.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Compare the solubility of glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen and sodium chloride in water and link this to the way they are transported.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Explain benefits of water properties to living organisms (Transparency and density not required.)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Evaluate how significant hydrogen bonding is in the properties of water.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong> <img alt="" class="left" src="../../../ib/biology/files/diag_files/water_hbonding%20diagram.jpg" style="height: 100px; width: 100px; float: right;" title="Image: David Faure 2012"></p><ul><li>What are the forces which hold water molecules together?</li><li>What properties does this give water?</li><li>Why do some substances dissolve easily in water and others don't mix with it at all.</li><li>How does the human body transport transport substances which dissolve easily in water and how does it transport those substances which don't dissolve.</li><li>What would happen if water didn't have H-bonding?</li></ul></div><h3>2.3 Carbohydrates & Lipids</h3><ul><li>Condensation reactions link Monosaccharide monomers together to<br>form disaccharides (Sucrose, lactose and maltose) and polysaccharides.(cellulose starch and glycogen)</li><li>Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.<br>and cis or trans isomers if they are unsaturated. (molecule names not required)</li><li>Three fatty acids and one glycerol molecules can form a Triglycerides by condensation reactions.</li><li>How the structure of cellulose and starch (amylose & amylopectin) in plants and glycogen in humans relates to function.</li><li>For long-term energy storage in humans<br>lipids are better than carbohydrates.</li><li>Potatoes have been genetically modified to reduce the level of amylose to<br>produce a more effective adhesive.</li><li>Evaluate the conflicting evidence for health risks of trans fats and saturated fatty acids and evaluate the methods used</li><li>Abiliy to use molecular visualization software like jmol to compare cellulose, starch and glycogen.</li><li>Ability to work out a BMI using a nomogram or by calculation</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong></p><ul><li>How many different types or molecule could be made by linking simple sugars like glucose and fructose together?</li><li>What different types of hydrocarbon chain are possible in fatty acids and how might these different structures affect their properties?</li><li>What could be made by linking fatty acids together?</li><li>What sort of uses could there be in the body for carbohydrate molecules which were; long threads, or tightly wound spiral shapes?</li><li>What uses could there be for these carbohydrate molecules as household products?</li><li>In science how can we work out if one experiment is better than another.</li></ul></div><h3 class="liWithoutP">2.4 Proteins</h3><ul><li class="liWithoutP">Amino acids are linked together by condensation reactions to form a di-peptides and polypeptides.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Genes and mRNA strands code for 20 different amino acids which are built into polypeptides on ribosomes.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence (coded for by genes) giving a huge range of possible polypeptides.</li><li class="liWithoutP">A protein may be a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide joined together.</li><li class="liWithoutP">The three-dimensional shape of a protein is determined by the sequence of amino acids.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions (not structure)<br>e.g. Rubisco, insulin, immunoglobulins, rhodopsin, collagen & spider silk.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Every individual has a unique proteome.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Proteomics and the production of proteins by cells cultured in fermenters<br>offer many opportunities for the food, pharmaceutical and other industries<br>(a utilisation)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Ability to draw molecular diagrams of peptide bond formation.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong> <img alt="" height="168" src="../../../ib/biology/amino_acid_structure.jpg" style="float: right;" title="Image: D. Faure 2013" width="168"></p><ul><li>How are amino acids linked together?</li><li>How many different amino acids are there?</li><li>How many different proteins are there?</li><li>What causes a protein to bend and coil into a 3D shape rather than a simple chain?</li><li>What happens if two or more polypeptide chains join together?</li><li>What are the functions of proteins in the cell, and also proteins which are secreted by living things?</li><li>How can an understanding of the proteins in living things help in industry?</li></ul></div><h3 class="liWithoutP">2.5 Enzymes</h3><ul><li class="liWithoutP">The role of the active site where specific substrates bind.</li><li class="liWithoutP">The effect of the motion of molecules and the collision of substrates with the active site.</li><li class="liWithoutP">The effect of Temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the rate of activity of enzymes. (including denaturing)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Enzymes (often immobilized) are extensively used in industry for the production of items including Lactose-free milk, fruit juice and washing powder.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong> <img alt="" height="138" src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/catalase-diag-sqr.jpg" style="float: right;" title="Image D. Faure 2013" width="164"></p><ul><li>How does the shape of a protein (which is a globular protein) help it's function?</li><li>How does the random movement of molecules help enzymes to function?</li><li>What effect do abiotic factors like temperature have on;<ul><li>the shape of a protein and</li><li>the random movement of particles?</li></ul></li><li>How could enzymes be used in industry for manufacture of biological molecules?</li></ul></div><div class="yellowBg"><ul><li>Advantages of latose-free milk, and ways of producing it, including immobilization in alginate beads.</li><li>Knowledge of possible designs of experiments to test the effect of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity.</li><li>Practical 3: Investigation of a factor affecting enzyme activity.</li><li>The skill of sketching a graph of expected results in enzymes experiments and the ability to explain reasons for their shapes.</li></ul></div><h3 class="liWithoutP">2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA</h3><ul><li class="liWithoutP">DNA and RNA are polymers each made of nucleotides.</li><li class="liWithoutP">A DNA nucleotide is made from phosphate, deoxyribose (pentose sugar), and nucleotide bases (T, A,G,C)</li><li class="liWithoutP">RNA nucleotides are made from phosphate, ribose (pentose sugar) and nucleotide bases (U, A, G, C)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Base pairing is "complementary"</li><li class="liWithoutP">DNA is a double helix made of two strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding RNA is a single strand of nucleotides.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Students should be able to draw simple diagrams of DNA and RNA nucleotides - using simple shapes (not chemical symbols)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Students should learn to draw two antiparallel strands of DNA showing base pairing, A 'ladder' structure is enough, and details of purines / pyrimidines are not required</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) <img alt="" src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/02_biochem/dna_sweets.jpg" style="float: right; width: 85px; height: 100px;"></strong></p><ul><li>Which molecule in cells is used for storage of genetic information?</li><li>What are the similarities between DNA and RNA?</li><li>What are the nucleotide bases found in DNA?</li><li>What is uracil?</li></ul></div><h3 class="liWithoutP">2.7 DNA Replication</h3><ul><li>DNA replication</li><li>Complementary base pairing leads to the semi-conservative replication of DNA.</li><li>The enzyme helicase unwinds the double helix and breaks hydrogen bonds which hold the two DNA strands together.</li><li>DNA polymerase (generalised name) links DNA nucleotides together to form a new strand DNA,using the pre-existing strand as a template.</li><li>Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA by RNA polymerase using the DNA base sequence as a template</li><li>Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes.</li><li>The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the genetic code.</li><li>Three bases of mRNA is called a codon and corresponds to one amino acid in the polypeptide.</li><li>Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and anticodons on tRNA.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong> <img src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/dna_replication_diag.png" style="height: 133px; width: 200px; float: right;" title="Image: D.Faure 2013"></p><ul><li>What property of the bases of DNA helps the process of replication of DNA ?</li><li>What are the roles of the two enzymes in the SL description of DNA replication?</li><li>RNA polymerase can unzip the DNA strand and build a strand of mRNA, what materials does it need?</li><li>What is the "genetic code"?</li><li>What is the difference between a codon and an anti-codon?</li><li>Where are they found?</li></ul></div><div class="yellowBg"><ul><li>Awareness that in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) an enzymes called Taq DNA polymerase produces multiple copies of DNA.</li><li>Ability to explain how Meselson and Stahl’s results support for the theory of semi-conservative replication of DNA.</li><li>knowledge that human insulin can be produced in bacteria because of the "universality" of the genetic code. This allows genes to be transferred between species.</li><li>Ability to use a table of the genetic code to deduce which codon(s) corresponds to which amino acid and to deduce the sequence of amino acids coded by a short mRNA or the DNA base sequence for a given mRNA strand</li></ul></div><h3 class="liWithoutP">2.8 Respiration</h3><ul><li class="liWithoutP">Cell respiration definition,"the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP"</li><li class="liWithoutP">ATP produced is a source of energy ready for immediate use in the cell.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose compared to aerobic respiration whose yield is large.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Aerobic cell respiration also requires oxygen.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Substrates (e.g. glucose) and final waste products (e.g. water, CO2, lactate, ethanol) should be known.</li><li>Anaerobic cell respiration in yeasts is used to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in baking.</li><li>In the human body anaerobic respiration is used to maximize the power of muscle contractions & produces lactate.</li><li>Know how to use simple respirometers to measure the rate of respiration.<ul><li>to know that an alkali is used to absorb CO<sub>2 </sub>produced in respirometers, so that reductions in gas volume are due to oxygen use.</li><li>To keep the temperature constant, so that gas volumes don't change through expansion / contraction of gas.</li></ul></li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong> <img alt="" class="Left" height="158" src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/respiration_SL_overview.jpg" style="float: right;" title="Image: D. Faure 2013" width="165"></p><ul><li>Why does the energy have to released step by step in cell respiration?</li><li>What is the role of ATP in cells?</li><li>Name the substrate and final waste products of<ul><li>aerobic respiration</li><li>anaerobic respiration</li></ul></li><li>What are the similarities and differences between aerobic and anaerobic cell respiration?</li></ul></div><h3 class="liWithoutP">2.9 Photosynthesis</h3><ul><li class="liWithoutP">Photosynthesis uses light energy to produce carbon compounds in cells.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Visible light ranges from violet (400nm) the shortest wavelength to red (700nm) the longest.<br>(Students are not expected to recall the wavelengths of other colours.)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Absorption specrum shows - red and blue light absorbed most and green light least (it is reflected).</li><li class="liWithoutP">Photolysis of water produces oxygen<br>(and also ATP & NADPH)</li><li class="liWithoutP">Energy ( from photolysis) is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide.</li><li class="liWithoutP">Limiting factors of photosynthesis can be; Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration.</li></ul><div class="blueBg"><p><strong>Revision </strong> <strong>Question(s) </strong> <img alt="" src="../../../ib/biology/images/flickr_cc_commercial_ok/02_biochem/chloroplast_slsmaller.jpg" style="width: 200px; height: 135px; float: right;"></p><ul><li>What benefit to plants in photosynthesis?</li><li>Can plants absorb all colours of light?</li><li>Which colours are absorbed most?</li><li>Water is split in photosynthesis, what does it form?</li><li>Carbon is trapped in photosynthesis - what does this form?</li><li>What conditions are required to make the fastest possible photosynthesis rate?</li></ul></div><div class="yellowBg"><ul><li>Understand that photosynthesis have caused changes to the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and rock deposition.</li><li>learn how to draw<ul><li>an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and</li><li>an action spectrum for photosynthesis.</li></ul></li><li>Design experiments to investigate the effect of limiting factors on photosynthesis.<br>Ref: control of variables is essential.</li><li>Separate photosynthetic pigments by chromatography. (Practical 4) either by paper chromatography or thin layer chromatography (gives better results)</li></ul></div><script>document.querySelectorAll('.tib-teacher-only').forEach(e => e.remove());</script>
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