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style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35118/unit-2111-market-power-theory-of-production-and-costs-hl.html" title="Unit 2.11(1) Market power - Theory of production and costs (HL)">Unit 2.11(1) Market power - Theory of production and costs (HL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35125/unit-2112-market-power-perfect-competitionhl.html" title="Unit 2.11(2) Market power - Perfect competition(HL)">Unit 2.11(2) Market power - Perfect competition(HL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35147/unit-2113-market-power-monopolyhl.html" title="Unit 2.11(3) Market power - Monopoly(HL)">Unit 2.11(3) Market power - Monopoly(HL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35151/unit-2114-market-power-monopolistic-competitionhl.html" title="Unit 2.11(4) Market power - Monopolistic competition(HL)">Unit 2.11(4) Market power - Monopolistic competition(HL)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35153/unit-2115-market-power-oligopolyhl.html" title="Unit 2.11(5) Market power - Oligopoly(HL)">Unit 2.11(5) Market power - Oligopoly(HL)</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41603/economics-real-world-examples-and-extension-material-.html" title="Economics real world examples and extension material ">Economics real world examples and extension material </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../43378/opportunity-cost-and-production-possibility-curves.html" title="Opportunity cost and production possibility curves">Opportunity cost and production possibility curves</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42559/demand-theory.html" title="Demand theory">Demand theory</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41886/the-price-mechanism.html" title="The price mechanism">The price mechanism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../43188/market-demand-and-supply.html" title="Market demand and supply">Market demand and supply</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41705/demerit-goods.html" title="Demerit goods">Demerit goods</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42275/market-failure-and-climate-change.html" title="Market failure and climate change">Market failure and climate change</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42925/market-power.html" title="Market power">Market power</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42099/applying-game-theory.html" title="Applying game theory">Applying game theory</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34407/chapter-3-macroeconomics.html" title="Chapter 3: Macroeconomics">Chapter 3: Macroeconomics</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34355/unit-311-measuring-the-level-of-economic-activity.html" title="Unit 3.1(1): Measuring the level of economic activity">Unit 3.1(1): Measuring the level of economic activity</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34432/unit-312-measuring-economic-development.html" title="Unit 3.1(2): Measuring Economic Development">Unit 3.1(2): Measuring Economic Development</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34485/unit-321-variations-in-economic-activity-aggregate-demand-ad-.html" title="Unit 3.2(1): Variations in economic activity - aggregate demand (AD) ">Unit 3.2(1): Variations in economic activity - aggregate demand (AD) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34487/unit-322-variations-in-economic-activity-aggregate-supplyas.html" title="Unit 3.2(2): Variations in economic activity - aggregate supply(AS)">Unit 3.2(2): Variations in economic activity - aggregate supply(AS)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34758/unit-331-macroeconomic-objectives-economic-growth.html" title="Unit 3.3(1) Macroeconomic objectives: economic growth">Unit 3.3(1) Macroeconomic objectives: economic growth</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34771/unit-332-macroeconomic-objectives-unemployment-.html" title="Unit 3.3(2) Macroeconomic objectives: unemployment ">Unit 3.3(2) Macroeconomic objectives: unemployment </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34778/unit-333-macroeconomic-objectives-inflation-and-deflation--1.html" title="Unit 3.3(3) Macroeconomic objectives: inflation and deflation ">Unit 3.3(3) Macroeconomic objectives: inflation and deflation </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34925/unit-341-economics-of-inequality-and-poverty-1.html" title="Unit 3.4(1) Economics of inequality and poverty">Unit 3.4(1) Economics of inequality and poverty</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34946/unit-342-policies-to-improve-equality-equity-and-poverty.html" title="Unit 3.4(2) Policies to improve equality, equity and poverty">Unit 3.4(2) Policies to improve equality, equity and poverty</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34993/unit-35-government-management-of-the-economy-monetary-policy-1.html" title="Unit 3.5 Government management of the economy – monetary policy">Unit 3.5 Government management of the economy – monetary policy</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../34962/unit-36-government-management-of-the-economy-fiscal-policy-1.html" title="Unit 3.6 Government management of the economy – fiscal policy">Unit 3.6 Government management of the economy – fiscal policy</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35017/unit-371-market-based-supply-side-policies--1.html" title="Unit 3.7(1) Market based supply-side policies ">Unit 3.7(1) Market based supply-side policies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35018/unit-372-interventionist-supply-side-policies-.html" title="Unit 3.7(2) Interventionist supply-side policies ">Unit 3.7(2) Interventionist supply-side policies </a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../45803/economics-real-world-examples-and-extension-material--1.html" title="Economics real world examples and extension material ">Economics real world examples and extension material </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42639/measuring-economic-well-being-1.html" title="Measuring economic well-being">Measuring economic well-being</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../43044/inflation.html" title="Inflation">Inflation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42350/inequality.html" title="Inequality">Inequality</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41639/inequity-1.html" title="Inequity">Inequity</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35414/chapter-4-the-global-economy.html" title="Chapter 4: The Global Economy">Chapter 4: The Global Economy</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35346/unit-41-benefits-of-international-trade-1.html" title="Unit 4.1 Benefits of international trade">Unit 4.1 Benefits of international trade</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35348/unit-4243-trade-protectionism-1.html" title="Unit 4.2/4.3 Trade protectionism">Unit 4.2/4.3 Trade protectionism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35407/unit-44-economic-integration-.html" title="Unit 4.4 Economic integration ">Unit 4.4 Economic integration </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35409/unit-45-exchange-rates-1.html" title="Unit 4.5 Exchange rates">Unit 4.5 Exchange rates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35413/unit-46-balance-of-payments--1.html" title="Unit 4.6 Balance of payments ">Unit 4.6 Balance of payments </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35675/unit-47-sustainable-development.html" title="Unit 4.7 Sustainable development">Unit 4.7 Sustainable development</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35685/unit-48-measuring-development--1.html" title="Unit 4.8 Measuring development ">Unit 4.8 Measuring development </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35687/unit-49-barriers-to-economic-development-1.html" title="Unit 4.9 Barriers to economic development">Unit 4.9 Barriers to economic development</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../35702/unit-410-economic-growth-and-economic-development-strategies.html" title="Unit 4.10: Economic growth and economic development strategies">Unit 4.10: Economic growth and economic development strategies</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../45804/economics-real-world-examples-and-extension-material-.html" title="Economics real world examples and extension material ">Economics real world examples and extension material </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41927/foreign-currency-1.html" title="Foreign currency">Foreign currency</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../43532/exchange-rates-1.html" title="Exchange rates">Exchange rates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../43804/balance-of-payments.html" title="Balance of payments">Balance of payments</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41796/economic-development-1.html" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li></ul></ul></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20132/units-1-2-microeconomics.html" title="Units 1-2: Microeconomics">Units 1-2: Microeconomics</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Unit 1: Introduction to economics">Unit 1: Introduction to economics</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20091/introductory-activity-1.html" title="Introductory activity">Introductory activity</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20093/unit-11-scarcity-choice-and-opportunity-cost.html" title="Unit 1.1: Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost">Unit 1.1: Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21647/factors-of-production-1.html" title="Factors of production">Factors of production</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20114/economic-systems.html" title="Economic systems">Economic systems</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20134/public-and-private-sectors-1.html" title="Public and private sectors">Public and private sectors</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../28055/unit-12-economics-as-a-social-science-1.html" title="Unit 1.2: Economics as a social science">Unit 1.2: Economics as a social science</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29921/circular-flow-of-national-income.html" title="Circular flow of national income">Circular flow of national income</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29829/unit-1-review-terms-1.html" title="Unit 1: Review terms">Unit 1: Review terms</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../41600/introduction-to-economics-crossword-1.html" title="Introduction to economics crossword">Introduction to economics crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../4331/unit-1-multiple-choice-quiz.html" title="Unit 1: Multiple choice quiz">Unit 1: Multiple choice quiz</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20177/unit-21-23-competitive-markets-demand-and-supply-1.html" title="Unit 2.1-2.3: Competitive markets - demand and supply">Unit 2.1-2.3: Competitive markets - demand and supply</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../28517/unit-21-demand-1.html" title="Unit 2.1: Demand">Unit 2.1: Demand</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22349/determinants-of-demand-1.html" title="Determinants of demand">Determinants of demand</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29949/unit-22-supply-.html" title="Unit 2.2: Supply ">Unit 2.2: Supply </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20184/changes-to-supply-and-demand-.html" title="Changes to supply and demand ">Changes to supply and demand </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21992/practise-exercises-1.html" title="Practise exercises">Practise exercises</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26112/gold-exchange-game-demand-and-supply-1.html" title="Gold exchange game: Demand and supply">Gold exchange game: Demand and supply</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20194/unit-23-competitive-market-equilibrium-1.html" title="Unit 2.3: Competitive market equilibrium">Unit 2.3: Competitive market equilibrium</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20144/producer-and-consumer-surplus-1.html" title="Producer and consumer surplus">Producer and consumer surplus</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22351/veblen-goods-and-super-luxury-goods-1.html" title="Veblen goods and super luxury goods">Veblen goods and super luxury goods</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../25677/are-cryptocurrencies-the-new-tulipmania.html" title="Are Cryptocurrencies the new Tulipmania?">Are Cryptocurrencies the new Tulipmania?</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20472/unit-21-23-multiple-choice-quiz.html" title="Unit 2.1-2.3: Multiple choice quiz">Unit 2.1-2.3: Multiple choice quiz</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20113/unit-24-consumer-and-producer-behaviour-hl-only-1.html" title="Unit 2.4: Consumer and producer behaviour (HL only)">Unit 2.4: Consumer and producer behaviour (HL only)</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../36073/behavioural-economics-consumer-biases-nudge-theory-hl-only-1.html" title="Behavioural economics: Consumer biases / nudge theory (HL only)">Behavioural economics: Consumer biases / nudge theory (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20378/business-objectives-hl-only.html" title="Business objectives (HL only)">Business objectives (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../28741/unit-21-24-review-terms--1.html" title="Unit 2.1-2.4: Review terms ">Unit 2.1-2.4: Review terms </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20195/unit-25-26-elasticity-1.html" title="Unit 2.5-2.6: Elasticity">Unit 2.5-2.6: Elasticity</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../28713/unit-25-price-elasticity-of-demand-1.html" title="Unit 2.5: Price elasticity of demand">Unit 2.5: Price elasticity of demand</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21545/determinants-of-price-elasticity-.html" title="Determinants of price elasticity ">Determinants of price elasticity </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21532/ped-elasticity-and-sales-revenue.html" title="PED elasticity and sales revenue?">PED elasticity and sales revenue?</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21259/unit-25-income-elasticity-of-demand-yed.html" title="Unit 2.5: Income elasticity of demand (YED)">Unit 2.5: Income elasticity of demand (YED)</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21200/unit-26-price-elasticity-of-supply.html" title="Unit 2.6: Price elasticity of supply">Unit 2.6: Price elasticity of supply</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20207/perfectly-elastic-inelastic-supply-curves.html" title="Perfectly elastic / inelastic supply curves">Perfectly elastic / inelastic supply curves</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20230/a-mathematical-note-about-elasticity-.html" title="A mathematical note about elasticity ">A mathematical note about elasticity </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../39037/demand-and-supply-crossword.html" title="Demand and supply crossword">Demand and supply crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29021/unit-25-26-review-terms-1.html" title="Unit 2.5-2.6: Review terms">Unit 2.5-2.6: Review terms</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20474/unit-25-26-multiple-choice-quiz--1.html" title="Unit 2.5-2.6: Multiple choice quiz ">Unit 2.5-2.6: Multiple choice quiz </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../44474/unit-21-25-competitive-markets-quiz-1.html" title="Unit 2.1- 2.5: Competitive markets quiz">Unit 2.1- 2.5: Competitive markets quiz</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20243/unit-27-the-role-of-government-in-microeconomics--1.html" title="Unit 2.7: The role of government in microeconomics ">Unit 2.7: The role of government in microeconomics </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26590/indirect-taxation.html" title="Indirect taxation">Indirect taxation</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20246/ped-and-the-burden-of-tax-hl-only-.html" title="PED and the burden of tax (HL only) ">PED and the burden of tax (HL only) </a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20277/government-subsidies--1.html" title="Government subsidies ">Government subsidies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29117/unit-27-indirect-tax-and-subsidy-review-terms-1.html" title="Unit 2.7: Indirect tax and subsidy review terms">Unit 2.7: Indirect tax and subsidy review terms</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20287/price-controls-maximum-price--1.html" title="Price controls − maximum price ">Price controls − maximum price </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20288/minimum-price-.html" title="Minimum price ">Minimum price </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21540/minimum-wage-.html" title="Minimum wage ">Minimum wage </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../38849/labour-market-crossword-1.html" title="Labour market crossword">Labour market crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29260/unit-27-price-controls-review-terms-1.html" title="Unit 2.7: Price controls review terms">Unit 2.7: Price controls review terms</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20303/unit-28-210-market-failure--1.html" title="Unit 2.8-2.10: Market failure ">Unit 2.8-2.10: Market failure </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21543/unit-28-merit-goods--1.html" title="Unit 2.8: Merit goods ">Unit 2.8: Merit goods </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23123/unit-28-demerit-goods-negative-externalities-1.html" title="Unit 2.8: Demerit goods / negative externalities">Unit 2.8: Demerit goods / negative externalities</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../38850/market-failure-crossword-1.html" title="Market failure crossword">Market failure crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29262/unit-29-economics-of-the-environment-and-public-goods--1.html" title="Unit 2.9: Economics of the environment and public goods ">Unit 2.9: Economics of the environment and public goods </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20332/unit-210-asymmetric-information-hl-only-1.html" title="Unit 2.10: Asymmetric information (HL only)">Unit 2.10: Asymmetric information (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29828/unit-28-210-market-failure-review-sheet.html" title="Unit 2.8-2.10: Market failure review sheet">Unit 2.8-2.10: Market failure review sheet</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29827/unit-28-210-market-failure-review-terms.html" title="Unit 2.8-2.10: Market failure review terms">Unit 2.8-2.10: Market failure review terms</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20479/unit-27-210-multiple-choice-quiz--1.html" title="Unit 2.7-2.10: Multiple choice quiz ">Unit 2.7-2.10: Multiple choice quiz </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../44501/unit-27-210-government-failure-revision-quiz-1.html" title="Unit 2.7-2.10 Government failure revision quiz">Unit 2.7-2.10 Government failure revision quiz</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20330/unit-211-market-power-hl-only-1.html" title="Unit 2.11: Market power (HL only)">Unit 2.11: Market power (HL only)</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29835/assessment-map.html" title="Assessment map">Assessment map</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21528/production-hl-only.html" title="Production (HL only)">Production (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29978/revenue-theory-hl-only.html" title="Revenue theory (HL only)">Revenue theory (HL only)</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20357/costs-of-production-hl-only.html" title="Costs of production (HL only)">Costs of production (HL only)</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21286/economies-and-diseconomies-of-scale-hl-only.html" title="Economies and diseconomies of scale (HL only)">Economies and diseconomies of scale (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22494/long-run-average-cost-curves-hl-only.html" title="Long run average cost curves (HL only)">Long run average cost curves (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29838/breakeven-hl-only.html" title="Breakeven (HL only)">Breakeven (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20340/economic-profit-hl-only.html" title="Economic profit (HL only)">Economic profit (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../39082/market-power-crossword.html" title="Market power crossword">Market power crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22495/revision-exercise-on-cost-and-revenue-hl-only.html" title="Revision exercise on cost and revenue (HL only)">Revision exercise on cost and revenue (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29845/unit-211-costs-revenue-and-profit-review-sheet-hl-only.html" title="Unit 2.11: Costs, revenue and profit review sheet (HL only)">Unit 2.11: Costs, revenue and profit review sheet (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../44484/unit-211-multiple-choice-quiz-sl-units-1.html" title="Unit 2.11: Multiple choice quiz (SL units)">Unit 2.11: Multiple choice quiz (SL units)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29846/market-structures-hl-only-1.html" title="Market structures (HL only)">Market structures (HL only)</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29981/perfect-competition-hl-only-1.html" title="Perfect competition (HL only)">Perfect competition (HL only)</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../24486/profit-in-perfect-competition-hl-only-1.html" title="Profit in perfect competition (HL only)">Profit in perfect competition (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21302/efficiency-in-perfect-competition-hl-only.html" title="Efficiency in perfect competition (HL only)">Efficiency in perfect competition (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20430/monopoly-hl-only-1.html" title="Monopoly (HL only)">Monopoly (HL only)</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../24529/profit-and-revenue-maximisation-in-monopoly-hl-only-1.html" title="Profit and revenue maximisation in monopoly (HL only)">Profit and revenue maximisation in monopoly (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21306/a-comparison-of-monopoly-and-perfect-competition-hl-only-1.html" title="A comparison of monopoly and perfect competition? (HL only)">A comparison of monopoly and perfect competition? (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20435/monopolistic-competition-hl-only-1.html" title="Monopolistic competition (HL only)">Monopolistic competition (HL only)</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20436/oligopoly-hl-only-1.html" title="Oligopoly (HL only)">Oligopoly (HL only)</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../22310/game-theory-hl-only-1.html" title="Game theory (HL only)">Game theory (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29918/unit-211-market-structures-review-sheet-hl-only-1.html" title="Unit 2.11: Market structures review sheet (HL only)">Unit 2.11: Market structures review sheet (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32337/unit-211-diagram-revision-.html" title="Unit 2.11: Diagram revision ">Unit 2.11: Diagram revision </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20480/unit-211-multiple-choice-quiz-hl-only-1.html" title="Unit 2.11: Multiple choice quiz (HL only)">Unit 2.11: Multiple choice quiz (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32425/unit-212-the-markets-inability-to-achieve-equity-hl-only-1.html" title="Unit 2.12: The market’s inability to achieve equity (HL only)">Unit 2.12: The market’s inability to achieve equity (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a class="" href="../21842/unit-3-macroeconomics-.html" title="Unit 3: Macroeconomics ">Unit 3: Macroeconomics </a></li><ul class="level-1 expanded"><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../3942/unit-31-measuring-economic-activity-and-illustrating-its-variati-1.html" title="Unit 3.1: Measuring economic activity and illustrating its variations">Unit 3.1: Measuring economic activity and illustrating its variations</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20558/calculating-national-income-1.html" title="Calculating national income">Calculating national income</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21297/gdp-gni-as-a-measure-of-living-standards.html" title="GDP / GNI as a measure of living standards">GDP / GNI as a measure of living standards</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20567/national-income-statistics-1.html" title="National income statistics">National income statistics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21580/the-business-cycle-1.html" title="The business cycle">The business cycle</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29931/unit-31-economic-activity-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unit 3.1: Economic activity review sheet">Unit 3.1: Economic activity review sheet</a></li></ul><li class="ancestor parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right fa-rotate-90"></i><a class="" href="../20592/unit-32-variations-in-economic-activityaggregate-demand-and-aggr-1.html" title="Unit 3.2: Variations in economic activity—aggregate demand and aggregate supply">Unit 3.2: Variations in economic activity—aggregate demand and aggregate supply</a></li><ul class="level-2 expanded"><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../29933/aggregate-demand-and-supply.html" title="Aggregate demand and supply">Aggregate demand and supply</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21582/components-of-aggregate-demand-1.html" title="Components of aggregate demand">Components of aggregate demand</a></li><li class="current" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="equilibrium-in-macroeconomics-neo-classical-perspective-1.html" title="Equilibrium in macroeconomics (neo-classical perspective)">Equilibrium in macroeconomics (neo-classical perspective)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20439/equilibrium-in-macroeconomics-keynesian-perspective-1.html" title="Equilibrium in macroeconomics (keynesian perspective)">Equilibrium in macroeconomics (keynesian perspective)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21349/john-maynard-keynes-1.html" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20650/keynesian-v-free-market-debate--1.html" title="Keynesian v free market debate ">Keynesian v free market debate </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21342/changes-in-the-long-run-aggregate-supply-1.html" title="Changes in the long run aggregate supply">Changes in the long run aggregate supply</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30055/unit-32-aggregate-demand-and-supply-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unit 3.2: Aggregate demand and supply review sheet">Unit 3.2: Aggregate demand and supply review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20610/unit-35-and-36-demand-management-fiscal-and-monetary-policy-1.html" title="Unit 3.5 and 3.6: Demand management - fiscal and monetary policy">Unit 3.5 and 3.6: Demand management - fiscal and monetary policy</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30058/government-budget.html" title="Government budget">Government budget</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21585/fiscal-policy--1.html" title="Fiscal policy ">Fiscal policy </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21343/multiplier-hl-only.html" title="Multiplier (HL only)">Multiplier (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21795/monetary-policy--1.html" title="Monetary policy ">Monetary policy </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30071/independent-central-banks-1.html" title="Independent central banks">Independent central banks</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30083/unit-35-and-36-review-sheet.html" title="Unit 3.5 and 3.6 review sheet">Unit 3.5 and 3.6 review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20615/unit-37-supply-side-policies-1.html" title="Unit 3.7: Supply side policies">Unit 3.7: Supply side policies</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20651/the-role-of-supply-side-policies-1.html" title="The role of supply side policies">The role of supply side policies</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20622/market-based-and-interventionist-supply-side-policies--1.html" title="Market based and interventionist supply side policies ">Market based and interventionist supply side policies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../39129/aggregate-demand-and-supply-crossword-1.html" title="Aggregate demand and supply crossword">Aggregate demand and supply crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30086/unit-37-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unit 3.7: Review sheet">Unit 3.7: Review sheet</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20755/unit-31-32-and-35-37-multiple-choice-quiz--1.html" title="Unit 3.1-3.2 and 3.5-3.7: Multiple choice quiz ">Unit 3.1-3.2 and 3.5-3.7: Multiple choice quiz </a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../44522/unit-31-32-and-35-37-revision-quiz-1.html" title="Unit 3.1-3.2 and 3.5-3.7: Revision quiz">Unit 3.1-3.2 and 3.5-3.7: Revision quiz</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20686/unit-33-macroeconomic-objectives.html" title="Unit 3.3: Macroeconomic objectives">Unit 3.3: Macroeconomic objectives</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30118/unemployment.html" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21351/types-of-unemployment.html" title="Types of unemployment?">Types of unemployment?</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21593/equilibrium-unemployment-.html" title="Equilibrium unemployment ">Equilibrium unemployment </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21594/disequilibrium-unemployment-1.html" title="Disequilibrium unemployment">Disequilibrium unemployment</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30458/unemployment-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unemployment review sheet">Unemployment review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20713/inflation--1.html" title="Inflation ">Inflation </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20712/measuring-inflation-hl-only-1.html" title="Measuring inflation (HL only)">Measuring inflation (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20685/costs-of-inflation-and-deflation-1.html" title="Costs of inflation and deflation">Costs of inflation and deflation</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30465/inflation-review-sheet.html" title="Inflation review sheet">Inflation review sheet</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20716/unemployment-v-inflation-trade-off-hl-only-1.html" title="Unemployment v inflation trade off (HL only)">Unemployment v inflation trade off (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../39133/macroeconomic-objectives-crossword-1.html" title="Macroeconomic objectives crossword">Macroeconomic objectives crossword</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../44511/unit-33-macroeconomic-indicators-revision-quiz-1.html" title="Unit 3.3: Macroeconomic indicators revision quiz">Unit 3.3: Macroeconomic indicators revision quiz</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20741/unit-34-economics-of-inequality-and-poverty-1.html" title="Unit 3.4: Economics of inequality and poverty">Unit 3.4: Economics of inequality and poverty</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32398/inequality-1.html" title="Inequality">Inequality</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21356/the-role-of-spending-and-taxation-on-inequality--1.html" title="The role of spending and taxation on inequality ">The role of spending and taxation on inequality </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21313/consequences-of-economic-growth-1.html" title="Consequences of economic growth">Consequences of economic growth</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30257/economic-growth-and-inequality-review-sheet-1.html" title="Economic growth and inequality review sheet">Economic growth and inequality review sheet</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20756/unit-33-34-multiple-choice-.html" title="Unit 3.3-3.4: Multiple choice ">Unit 3.3-3.4: Multiple choice </a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21844/unit-4-global-economy.html" title="Unit 4: Global economy">Unit 4: Global economy</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21367/unit-41-benefits-of-international-trade.html" title="Unit 4.1: Benefits of international trade">Unit 4.1: Benefits of international trade</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30529/benefits-of-international-trade.html" title="Benefits of international trade">Benefits of international trade</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20823/absolute-and-comparative-advantage-hl-only-1.html" title="Absolute and comparative advantage (HL only)">Absolute and comparative advantage (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20845/unit-42-43-trade-protection-1.html" title="Unit 4.2-4.3: Trade protection">Unit 4.2-4.3: Trade protection</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32419/barriers-to-trade-calculations-are-hl-only-1.html" title="Barriers to trade (calculations are HL only)">Barriers to trade (calculations are HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21610/case-study-on-tata-steel-1.html" title="Case study on Tata Steel">Case study on Tata Steel</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../23455/the-defence-industry-1.html" title="The Defence industry">The Defence industry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30610/unit-41-43-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unit 4.1-4.3: Review sheet">Unit 4.1-4.3: Review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20894/unit-44-economic-integration--1.html" title="Unit 4.4: Economic integration ">Unit 4.4: Economic integration </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30634/economic-integration-some-hl-tasks-1.html" title="Economic integration (some HL tasks)">Economic integration (some HL tasks)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20840/world-trade-organisation-wto-1.html" title="World trade organisation (WTO)">World trade organisation (WTO)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30635/unit-44-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unit 4.4: Review sheet">Unit 4.4: Review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20853/unit-45-exchange-rates-1.html" title="Unit 4.5: Exchange rates">Unit 4.5: Exchange rates</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30611/floating-exchange-rates-1.html" title="Floating exchange rates">Floating exchange rates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../31824/fixed-managed-exchange-rate-systems-some-hl-tasks-1.html" title="Fixed / managed exchange rate systems (some HL tasks)">Fixed / managed exchange rate systems (some HL tasks)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21624/the-market-for-foreign-exchange-1.html" title="The market for foreign exchange">The market for foreign exchange</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30614/unit-45-review-sheet-1.html" title="Unit 4.5: Review sheet">Unit 4.5: Review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20859/unit-46-balance-of-payments-1.html" title="Unit 4.6: Balance of payments">Unit 4.6: Balance of payments</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30624/balance-of-payments--1.html" title="Balance of payments ">Balance of payments </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21386/current-account-hl-only-1.html" title="Current account (HL only)">Current account (HL only)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20872/the-marshall-lerner-condition-j-curve-hl-only-1.html" title="The Marshall-Lerner condition / J curve (HL only)">The Marshall-Lerner condition / J curve (HL only)</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20899/units-41-46-multiple-choice-quiz--1.html" title="Units 4.1-4.6: Multiple choice quiz ">Units 4.1-4.6: Multiple choice quiz </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../42989/unit-41-46-multiple-choice-quiz-ii-1.html" title="Unit 4.1-4.6: Multiple choice quiz II">Unit 4.1-4.6: Multiple choice quiz II</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../39438/unit-41-46-international-trade-crossword-1.html" title="Unit 4.1-4.6: International trade crossword">Unit 4.1-4.6: International trade crossword</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32423/unit-47-sustainable-development--1.html" title="Unit 4.7: Sustainable development ">Unit 4.7: Sustainable development </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../26092/water-scarcity-activity-1.html" title="Water scarcity activity">Water scarcity activity</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32426/sustainable-development.html" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20928/unit-48-measuring-development--1.html" title="Unit 4.8: Measuring development ">Unit 4.8: Measuring development </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30686/measuring-development-1.html" title="Measuring development">Measuring development</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21627/economic-development--1.html" title="Economic development ">Economic development </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30679/unit-47-48-review-sheet.html" title="Unit 4.7-4.8: Review sheet">Unit 4.7-4.8: Review sheet</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Unit 4.9: Barriers to development">Unit 4.9: Barriers to development</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30727/barriers-to-development-in-international-trade-1.html" title="Barriers to development in International trade">Barriers to development in International trade</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32430/unit-410-economic-growth-andor-economic-development-strategies-1.html" title="Unit 4.10: Economic growth and/or economic development strategies">Unit 4.10: Economic growth and/or economic development strategies</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30687/the-role-of-domestic-factors-1.html" title="The role of domestic factors">The role of domestic factors</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30688/the-role-of-international-trade-and-development-1.html" title="The role of international trade and development">The role of international trade and development</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30689/the-role-of-foreign-direct-investment-fdi-1.html" title="The role of foreign direct investment (FDI)">The role of foreign direct investment (FDI)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../25240/the-role-of-foreign-aid--1.html" title="The role of foreign aid ">The role of foreign aid </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30819/multilateral-development-assistance-1.html" title="Multilateral development assistance">Multilateral development assistance</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21632/the-role-of-international-debt-1.html" title="The role of international debt">The role of international debt</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../25242/the-balance-between-markets-and-intervention-1.html" title="The balance between markets and intervention">The balance between markets and intervention</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../30926/unit-49-410-review-sheet.html" title="Unit 4.9 - 4.10: Review sheet">Unit 4.9 - 4.10: Review sheet</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21380/assessment.html" title="Assessment">Assessment</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Internal assessment ">Internal assessment </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../20608/how-to-write-your-ia-student-handout.html" title="How to write your IA? 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(student handout)</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../21428/how-to-interpret-the-assessment-criteria-1.html" title="How to interpret the assessment criteria?">How to interpret the assessment criteria?</a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Grading practise ">Grading practise </a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Sample 3a">Sample 3a</a></li><ul class="level-4 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 56px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32083/sample-3b-1.html" title="Sample 3b">Sample 3b</a></li></ul></ul></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../32022/assessment-markbands-1.html" title="Assessment markbands">Assessment markbands</a></li></ul><li class=" parent std-toplevel" style="padding-left: 4px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../4332/exam-style-questions.html" title="Exam style questions">Exam style questions</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="std-disabled" href="#" title="Paper 1 style examination questions">Paper 1 style examination questions</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../40100/unit-211-212-questions.html" title="Unit 2.11-2.12 questions">Unit 2.11-2.12 questions</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a class="" href="../45102/paper-1-guidance-on-essay-writing-1.html" title="Paper 1 guidance on essay writing">Paper 1 guidance on essay writing</a></li></ul></ul></nav> </div> </div> </div> </div><div style="margin-top: 20px;"><style type="text/css">
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<div id="main-column" class="span9"> <article id="equilibrium-in-macroeconomics-neo-classical-perspective" style="margin-top: 16px;">
<h1 class="section-title">Equilibrium in macroeconomics (neo-classical perspective)</h1>
<ul class="breadcrumb"><li><a title="Home" href="../../../economics.html"><i class="fa fa-home"></i></a><span class="divider">/</span></li><li><span class="gray">Unit 3: Macroeconomics </span><span class="divider">/</span></li><li><a title="Go to: Unit 3.2: Variations in economic activity—aggregate demand and aggregate supply" href="../20592/unit-32-variations-in-economic-activityaggregate-demand-and-aggr-1.html">Unit 3.2: Variations in economic activity—aggregate demand and aggregate supply</a><span class="divider">/</span></li><li><span class="active">Equilibrium in macroeconomics (neo-classical perspective)</span></li></ul>
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<h2><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics-2/stabilisers.jpg" style="width: 274px; height: 184px; float: left;" title="www.littlebigbikes.com"> Introduction</h2>While there is general consensus among economists concerning the shape of the aggregate demand curve as well as the short run aggregate supply curve, economists tend to disagree over the shape of the AS curve in the long run, with theorists divided into one of two camps - keynesian economists and on the other hand neo-classical economists, which includes monetarist, neo-monetarist, laissez faire as well as Chicago school economists. This page focuses on the equilibrium in macroeconomics from a neo-classical perspective.<hr class="hidden"><div class="blueBg"><h3>Enquiry question</h3><p>Why using the monetarist / new classical model, is the long run aggregate supply curve (LRAS) vertical at the full employment output level.</p></div><div class="blueBg"><p><strong><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/circular_flow.png" style="width: 320px; height: 194px; float: right;">Lesson time: </strong>70 minutes</p><p><strong>Lesson objectives:</strong></p><p>Explain, using a diagram, that the monetarist / new classical model of the long run aggregate supply curve (LRAS) is vertical at the level of potential output (full employment output) because aggregate supply in the long run is independent of the price level.</p><p>Explain, using a diagram, the determination of long-run equilibrium, according to the monetarist / new classical model, indicating that long-run equilibrium occurs at the full employment level of output.</p><p>Examine why, in the monetarist / new classical approach, while there may be short-term fluctuations in output, the economy will always return to the full employment level of output in the long run.</p><p><strong>Teacher notes:</strong></p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><strong>1.</strong> <strong>Beginning activity </strong>- begin with the opening video which takes 15 minutes and links directly to activities 1 and 2. </span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><strong>2.</strong> <strong>Processes</strong> -<strong> technical vocabulary </strong>-<strong> </strong>the students can learn the key concepts through the opening video and the handout containing the activities. Allow 20 minutes to go through activities 1 and 2 and discuss both. </span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><strong>3. Developing the argument</strong> - activity 3 and 4 start with a short video and your students can use the information contained in the video to consider whether governments can really trust the economies automatic stabilisers, or whether governments instead need to intervene. (15 minutes)</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><strong>4. Short revision questions</strong> - activity 5 contains 5 short answer revision questions. (10 minutes)</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><strong>5. Final reflection </strong>- complete this lesson by looking at the paper one examination style question. This can also be completed as a class or homework exercise. (10 minutes) </span></p></section></div><div class="greenBg"><h4><em>Key terms:</em></h4><p><strong>Macroeconomic equilibrium</strong> - where aggregate supply is equal to aggregate demand.</p><p><strong>Inflationary gap</strong> - inflationary pressure created by the current (or SR) equilibrium being above the full employment (or LR) equilibrium.</p><p><strong>Contractionary / recessionary gap</strong> - where the level of national output is operating below the full employment level of output. </p><p><strong>Output gap</strong> - when the economy is experiencing either an inflationary or contractionary gap.</p><p><strong>Recession</strong> - a period of time when there is a fall in GDP for two consecutive three-month periods.</p><p><strong>Crowding out (HL) - </strong>a situation<strong> </strong>where too much government spending drives down or eliminates private sector spending, through bidding up the price of resources and factors of production.</p></div><p>The activities on this page are available as a PDF file at: <a href="../../../media/ib/economics/files/macro-economics/neoclassical-equilibrium.pdf.html" target="_blank" title="Student handouts"><img class="ico" src="../../../thinkib/icons/student-handout.png"> Macroequilibrium</a> </p><div class="pinkBg"><h4><strong>Beginning exercise: Macroeconomic equilibrium</strong></h4><p>Begin by showing the following short video and then have your classes complete activity 1. </p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/GywvZAkyNPc" width="640"></iframe></p></div><div class="blueBg"><h4><strong>Activity 1: Inflationary gap</strong></h4><p>(a) Using information from the video draw a diagram illustrating an economy in its long run equilibrium from the neo-classical perspective.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/long-run-macro-equilibrium.jpg" style="width: 275px; height: 275px; float: left;"><span style="color:#FF0000;">From a neoclassical / monetarist perspective the curve is perfectly inelastic - i.e. average price levels and real national income are independent of each other. Any changes in aggregate demand therefore will ultimately impact on average price levels rather than the level of real income in the economy.</span></p></section><p>(b) Illustrate the initial short run effect of a rise in AD and label the inflationary gap created.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/sr-lr-monetarist-equilibrium.jpg" style="width: 275px; height: 275px; float: right;"></p></section><p>(c) Explain why the growth in real GDP disappears in the long run?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/lras-curve-monetarist-final-position.jpg" style="width: 275px; height: 275px; float: left;"><span style="color:#FF0000;">In the long run the video claims that the economy is self correcting. This means that in the long run the economy will automatically settle at its long run equilibrium, represented on the diagram to the left by point X, where AD intersects with the LRAS curve. </span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">This is because in any economy there are a fixed number of factors of production factors - land, labour e.t.c. and if government chooses to employ those resources in the public sector then this will cause 'crowding out' in the private sector, with scarce resources rising in price. </span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">Once this happens the motivation for firms to continue operating at Y2 diminishes as the additional profit earned from the increased selling price is cancelled out by the higher production costs. With firms receiving no benefit from the short term rise in output, the short run aggregate supply curve falls from SRAS1 to SRAS2 and the new equilibrium level of output remains at Y1, but at the higher average price level of P3. This is represented by a change in the equilibrium from A to B.</span></p></section></div><div class="pinkBg"><h4><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/long-run-macro-equilibrium.jpg" style="width: 275px; height: 275px; float: right;"><strong>Activity 2: Closing a deflationary gap</strong></h4><p>The diagram to the right illustrates the economy in equilibrium. </p><p>(a) Illustrate the impact of a fall in AD on the diagram and label the size of the recessionary gap.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/micro-economics/deflationary-gap-monetarist.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: left;"></p></section><p>(b) Explain why neoclassical economists believe that the deflationary gap will not last and the economy will eventually return to its long run equilibrium.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/micro-economics/long-run-neo-class.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: right;"><span style="color:#FF0000;">Overtime unemployed workers will begin to accept lower wages and the price of other factors of production, as well as key raw materials will fall, forcing up profit levels within firms.</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">As businesses start to feel the benefit from lower production costs those firms will gradually raise output levels, illustrated by the rise in aggregate supply from AS1 to AS2, until the deflationary gap disappears. Output level returns to its full employment level of Y1 and at the new macro economic equilibrium level the new price level is represented by PL3. This is represented by diagram 2, to the left.</span></p></section></div><div class="pinkBg"><h4><strong>Activity 3: Automatic stabilisers</strong></h4><p>Show the following short video on the same topic and then answer the questions which follow:</p><p style="text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/a2azB2eag5I" width="640"></iframe></p><p>(a) Why according to the video might the automatic stabilisers in the economy take several years to correct?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><span style="color:#FF0000;">The supply-side theory of automatic stabilisers self correcting the economy, as outlined in question 3, depends on the degree of flexibility of wages. If wages fail to respond, perhaps as a result of out of work benefits paid by governments, then unemployment will only continue to increase as overall demand remains weak.</span></section><p>(b) Does this mean that governments should intervene in the economy, by stimulating demand themselves, rather than relying on the economy's natural stabilisers?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><span style="color:#FF0000;">As the video highlights the economy will eventually correct itself, according to conventional economic theory but may take a very long tine to do so and as Lord Maynard Keynes outlined in the long run we are all dead. Therefore, according to some politicians the government should make up the output gap itself by increasing government spending levels. Though of course such a policy risks 'crowding out' in the economy.</span></section><p>(c) What measures might a government take to stimulate demand in the economy, rather than wait for the economy to correct itself?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">Examples include rises in public spending (G), a reduction in income taxes to help stimulate (C) and (I) as measures such as quantitative easing of money, e.t.c.</span></p></section></div><div class="pinkBg"><h4><strong>Activity 4: Sticky wages / prices </strong></h4><p>Do sticky wages and prices make it more difficult for the economy to come out of recession? Study the following table and then decide.</p><table border="2" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><strong>Year</strong></td><td style="text-align: center;"><strong>GDP growth %</strong></td><td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Unemployment %</strong></td><td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Rise in average prices %</strong></td><td style="text-align: center;"><strong>Real wage growth %</strong></td></tr><tr><td>2008</td><td style="text-align: center;">(0.3)</td><td style="text-align: center;">5.3</td><td style="text-align: center;">0.1</td><td style="text-align: center;">4.1</td></tr><tr><td>2009</td><td style="text-align: center;">(2.8)</td><td style="text-align: center;">8</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.7</td><td style="text-align: center;">(6.8)</td></tr><tr><td>2010</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.5</td><td style="text-align: center;">9.8</td><td style="text-align: center;">1.5</td><td style="text-align: center;">(1.8)</td></tr><tr><td>2011</td><td style="text-align: center;">1.6</td><td style="text-align: center;">9.2</td><td style="text-align: center;">3</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.1</td></tr><tr><td>2012</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.2</td><td style="text-align: center;">8.2</td><td style="text-align: center;">1.7</td><td style="text-align: center;">4.3</td></tr><tr><td>2013</td><td style="text-align: center;">1.7</td><td style="text-align: center;">8</td><td style="text-align: center;">1.5</td><td style="text-align: center;">5</td></tr><tr><td>2014</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.4</td><td style="text-align: center;">6.5</td><td style="text-align: center;">0.8</td><td style="text-align: center;">4.2</td></tr><tr><td>2015</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.6</td><td style="text-align: center;">5.6</td><td style="text-align: center;">0.7</td><td style="text-align: center;">5.1</td></tr><tr><td>2016</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.1</td><td style="text-align: center;">5</td><td style="text-align: center;">2.1</td><td style="text-align: center;">4</td></tr></tbody></table><p>Figures accessed from <a href="http://www.thebalance.com/u-s-inflation-rate-history-by-year-and-forecast-3306093" target="_blank" title="Key study"><img class="ico" src="../../../thinkib/icons/key-study.png"> Trading economics</a></p><p>To what extent does the data in the above table suggest that prices and wages respond to changes in economic activity?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">The above data suggests that wages and general prices do respond to changes in economic activity. For instance during the recession of 2007 - 2010 real wages fell as unemployment rose and national income fell. Similarly as the economy gathered pace wages and average prices rose, thus supporting the neoclassical economic perspective. </span><span style="color:#FF0000;">That said during this period, the USA government did use aggressive stimulus measures to boost the economy, rather than simply trust the economy to correct itself. </span></p></section></div><div class="pinkBg"><h4><strong>Activity 5: Short answer revision questions</strong></h4><p><em><strong>Select the correct response:</strong></em></p><p>1. Which of the following statements is correct?</p><p>A. Wages do not adjust to changes in the price level</p><p>B. Wages fall when the price level falls and rise when the price level rises</p><p>C. Wages fall when the price level rises and rise when the price level falls</p><p>D. Wages do not change when the price level increases and wages fall when the price level decreases</p><p>E. Wages do not change when the price level falls and rise when the price level rises.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">B</span></p></section><p><img alt="" height="281" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/long-run-neo-classical-equilibrium.jpg" style="float: right;" width="281">2. At point Y on the diagram, the economy has</p><p>A. A positive output gap</p><p>B. An unemployment rate equal to the natural rate of unemployment</p><p>C. An output on its long-run equilibrium</p><p>D. A recession</p><p>E. A negative output gap</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">C</span></p></section><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/long-run-monetarist-equilibrium.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: left;">3. The diagram to the left indicates an economy:</p><p>A. At a peak in its business cycle</p><p>B. Where the current unemployment rate is lower than the natural rate of unemployment</p><p>C. Where the economy is in short-run equilibrium, but not in long-run equilibrium</p><p>D. Which has cyclical unemployment but no structural unemployment</p><p>E. Where the economy is in short-run and long-run equilibrium.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">E</span></p></section><p><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/Foundation-of-economics/production-poss-curve.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: right;">4. Which point on the PPF diagram represents the economy at its long run equilibrium?</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>B and C</p><p>A, B and C.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">B</span></p></section><p>5. Which point on the PPF diagram represents the economy experiencing a recessionary gap?</p><p>A</p><p>B</p><p>C</p><p>B and C</p><p>A, B and C.</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">A</span></p></section></div><div class="blueBg"><h4><strong>Activity 6: Link to the assessment in paper one </strong></h4><p>Examples of typical paper one questions on macroeconomic equilibrium policies include:</p><p><strong>Part (a)</strong></p><p>Explain possible reasons why an economy might go into recession. <em>[10 marks] </em></p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><div><p><strong><span style="color:#FF0000;">Command term: Explain</span></strong></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><em>Key term to define: recession<img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/fall-in-short-run-ad.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: right;"></em></span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">A definition of recession as a period when there is a fall in GDP for two consecutive three month periods. This should be followed by an explanation of how a fall in any one of the components of AD could lead to a fall in national income: consumption, investment, government expenditure or net exports. If national income then falls for two consecutive periods then this is a technical recession. This is illustrated by the following diagram, showing a decline in aggregate demand, represented by a left shift in AD and a fall in output equal to Y1, Y2.<strong> </strong></span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><span style="color:#FF0000;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/macro-economics/fall-in-sras.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: left;"></span>An explanation that a recession can also be caused by supply factors rather than demand side factors. For example, a rise in production costs, e.g. an increase in the price of oil or minimum wage, may cause a fall in GDP through reductions in SRAS, illustrated on diagram 2 by a fall in SRAS to SRAS2 and a reduction in real output from Y1 to Y2.</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">A recognition that in some cases a recession may stem from external events e.g. recessions in other countries leading to a fall in export revenues.</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"></span></p></div></section><p><strong>Part (b)</strong></p><p>Using real world examples, discuss the view that in the long run an economy will inevitably return to the full employment level of output. <em> [15 marks]</em></p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><div><p><strong><span style="color:#FF0000;"></span></strong><span style="color:#FF0000;"><img alt="" src="../../../ib/economics/images/micro-economics/contractionary-gap-2-monetarist.jpg" style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float: left;"></span><strong><span style="color:#FF0000;">Command term: Discuss</span></strong></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;"><em>Key term to define: Full employment level of output</em></span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">This question requires a discussion of the validity of this claim and centres on two distinct economic schools of thought. </span></p><p>Real world examples that might be used could include Germany and USA which took very different approaches to the recent financial crisis but both finally returned to the full employment level of national output. </p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">On one hand is the </span><span style="color:#FF0000;">neo-classical economists who support the above statement, believing that an economy will automatically correct itself. </span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">On the LRAS / AD diagram aggregate demand initially falls from AD1 to AD2 and a deflationary gap is created from Q1, Q2. However, neo-classical economists state that over time, as unemployment in the economy rises the price of factor resources will fall. This will create the ideal business climate for firms to raise production levels, with the lower production costs represented by a rise in aggregate supply from SRAS1 to SRAS2. A new long run equilibrium is created and the the economy clears at Q1.</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">On the other hand keynesian economists do not support this view, claiming instead that without direct government intervention an economy will remain stuck in a permanent deflationary gap. This deflationary gap would be characterised by low wages, high unemployment, low levels of aggregate demand, leading to lower company profits and low levels of investment and employment growth and reducing real wages.</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">Real world examples that might be used could include Germany and USA which took very different approaches to the recent financial crisis. The USA adopted very aggressive expansionary demand side policies and the economy benefited as a result. By contrast Germany left its economy largely untouched and market forces appear to have brought its economy back into equilibrium - though this process took longer than in the USA which saw almost instant results.</span></p><p><span style="color:#FF0000;">The impact of either policy should also be considered in terms of whether the government is prioritising a short term fix, in which case they are likely to employ keynesian stimulus policies, or whether the government is looking for long term sustainable improvements in growth and are therefore able to wait for the economy's natural stabilisers to be effective. </span></p></div></section></div><script>document.querySelectorAll('.tib-teacher-only').forEach(e => e.remove());</script>
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}
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