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nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li><a href="../19429/solar-energy-1.html">Solar energy</a></li><li><a href="../19437/environmental-impact-global-warming-1.html">Environmental impact - global warming</a></li><li><a href="../19453/electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html">Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li><a href="../19458/nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html">Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li><a href="../19470/photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html">Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../19078/option-d-1.html" class="father">Option D</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../19079/pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html">Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li><a href="../19158/aspirin-penicillin--1.html">Aspirin & penicillin </a></li><li><a href="../19174/opiates-1.html">Opiates</a></li><li><a href="../19184/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html">pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li><a href="../19194/antiviral-medications--1.html">Antiviral medications </a></li><li><a href="../19211/environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html">Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li><a href="../19254/taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study-1.html">Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study</a></li><li><a href="../19258/nuclear-medicine--1.html">Nuclear medicine </a></li><li><a href="../19273/drug-detection-analysis--1.html">Drug detection & analysis </a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16592/practical-scheme-of-work-ia--1.html">Practical scheme of work & IA </a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../16682/internal-assessment-1.html" class="father">Internal Assessment</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../18892/scaffolding-the-investigation-1.html">'Scaffolding' the investigation</a></li><li><a href="../18896/timing-organisation--1.html">Timing & organisation </a></li><li><a href="../18905/choosing-the-research-question-1.html">Choosing the research question</a></li><li><a href="../18946/personal-engagement-1.html">Personal engagement</a></li><li><a href="../18950/exploration-1.html">Exploration</a></li><li><a href="../18957/analysis-1.html">Analysis</a></li><li><a href="../18965/evaluation-1.html">Evaluation</a></li><li><a href="../18966/communication-1.html">Communication</a></li><li><a href="../19882/internal-standardization-of-the-ia-1.html">Internal standardization of the IA</a></li><li><a href="../19901/submitting-the-samples-for-moderation-2.html">Submitting the samples for moderation</a></li><li><a href="../33754/ten-suggestions-for-ias-using-secondary-data-1.html">Ten suggestions for IAs using secondary data</a></li><li><a href="../37544/gaining-full-marks-for-a-databased-ia--1.html">Gaining full marks for a databased IA </a></li><li><a href="../19506/ia-example-marking-exercise--1.html">IA example & marking exercise </a></li><li><a href="../23929/genuine-examples-of-moderated-ia-reports-1.html">Genuine examples of moderated IA reports</a></li><li><a href="../25234/examples-of-teacher-marked-ia-reports--1.html">Examples of teacher-marked IA reports </a></li><li><a href="../37542/history-of-internal-assessment-1.html">History of Internal Assessment</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../16598/mandatory-laboratory-components-1.html" class="father">Mandatory laboratory components</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../16613/formula-of-magnesium-oxide--1.html">Formula of magnesium oxide </a></li><li><a href="../16612/determining-the-mr-of-an-unknown-gas-1.html">Determining the <i>M</i><sub>r</sub> of an unknown gas</a></li><li><a href="../16615/acid-base-titrations--1.html">Acid-base titrations </a></li><li><a href="../16616/a-green-acid-base-practical-1.html">A green acid-base practical</a></li><li><a href="../16617/analysis-of-aspirin-tablets-1.html">Analysis of aspirin tablets</a></li><li><a href="../16618/caco3-in-egg-shells-1.html">CaCO<sub>3</sub> in egg shells</a></li><li><a href="../16644/enthalpy-changes-1.html">Enthalpy changes</a></li><li><a href="../16631/reaction-rates-1.html">Reaction rates</a></li><li><a href="../16635/rate-dependent-factors-1.html">Rate-dependent factors</a></li><li><a href="../16636/determining-ea-for-a-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>E</i><sub>a</sub> for a reaction</a></li><li><a href="../16637/iodination-of-propanone-1.html">Iodination of propanone</a></li><li><a href="../18144/titrations-with-a-ph-meter-1.html">Titrations with a pH meter</a></li><li><a href="../18355/redox-titration-with-kmno4--1.html">Redox titration with KMnO<sub>4</sub> </a></li><li><a href="../16640/voltaic-cells-1.html">Voltaic cells</a></li><li><a href="../16659/3-d-molecular-modelling--1.html">3-D molecular modelling </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17168/other-good-practicals-1.html" class="father">Other good practicals</a><ul class="level-2"><li><a href="../17196/common-chemical-reactions-1.html">Common chemical reactions</a></li><li><a href="../227/elements-oxides-of-the-third-period--1.html">Elements & oxides of the third period </a></li><li><a href="../17239/the-halogens-1.html">The halogens</a></li><li><a href="../17162/boiling-points-of-mixtures-1.html">Boiling points of mixtures</a></li><li><a href="../17170/polarity-of-molecules-1.html">Polarity of molecules</a></li><li><a href="../18083/le-chateliers-principle--1.html">Le Chatelier's principle </a></li><li><a href="../19582/determining-kc-for-an-esterification-reaction-1.html">Determining <i>K</i><sub>c</sub> for an esterification reaction</a></li><li><a href="../18164/redox-reactions-of-vanadium--1.html">Redox reactions of vanadium </a></li><li><a href="../18351/chlorine-in-swimming-pools--1.html">Chlorine in swimming pools </a></li><li><a href="../18178/analysis-of-cuii-ions-in-solution--1.html">Analysis of Cu(II) ions in solution </a></li><li><a href="../18179/percentage-of-copper-in-brass-1.html">Percentage of copper in brass</a></li><li><a href="../18356/electrolytic-cells--1.html">Electrolytic cells </a></li><li><a href="../18598/reactions-of-organic-compounds-1.html">Reactions of organic compounds</a></li><li><a href="../18752/hydrolysis-of-halogenoalkanes-1.html">Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes</a></li><li><a href="../18784/preparation-of-13-dinitrobenzene--1.html">Preparation of 1,3-dinitrobenzene </a></li><li><a href="../19022/determination-of-an-organic-structure-1.html">Determination of an organic structure</a></li><li><a href="../19887/preparation-of-nylon-66-1.html">Preparation of nylon 6,6</a></li><li><a href="../19343/determination-of-vitamin-c-content--1.html">Determination of vitamin C content </a></li><li><a href="../19342/hydrolysis-of-starch--1.html">Hydrolysis of starch </a></li><li><a href="../19159/preparation-purification-of-aspirin--1.html">Preparation & purification of aspirin </a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../18851/ict-in-practical-work-1.html" class="father">ICT in practical work</a><ul 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Chemistry?</a></li><li><a href="../3505/a-modern-paradigm-1.html">A modern paradigm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><a href="../17783/fast-track-to-tests-questions-1.html">Fast track to tests & questions</a><ul class="level-1"><li><a href="../17784/sl-multiple-choice-tests-on-individual-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice tests on individual topics</a></li><li><a href="../24351/sl-multiple-choice-quizzes-on-sub-topics-1.html">SL Multiple choice 'quizzes' on sub-topics</a></li><li><a href="../31519/sl-practice-paper-1-exams-1.html">SL Practice Paper 1 exams</a></li><li><a href="../17786/sl-questions-on-each-sub-topic-1.html">SL Questions on each sub-topic</a></li><li><a href="../20431/sl-paper-3-section-a-questions-1.html">SL Paper 3 Section A questions</a></li><li><a href="../17792/sl-questions-on-the-options-1.html">SL Questions on the options</a></li><li><a href="../24897/sl-quizzes-on-option-sub-topics--1.html">SL Quizzes on option sub-topics </a></li><li><a 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<nav id="sidemenu" class="side-nav"><div class="header"><span style="color: #fff;"><a href="../41465/complete-course-for-students--2.html">Complete course for students </a></span><span id="sidetreecontrol"><a title="Collapse all" rel="collapse" href="#"><i class="fa fa-minus-circle"></i></a> <a title="Expand all" rel="expand" href="#"><i class="fa fa-plus-circle"></i></a></span></div><ul class="level-0 always-expanded"><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27988/full-coverage-of-each-topic-and-sub-topic-2.html" title="Full coverage of each topic and sub-topic">Full coverage of each topic and sub-topic</a></li><ul class="level-1 "><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27959/topic-1-stoichiometric-relationships-1.html" title="Topic 1 : Stoichiometric relationships">Topic 1 : Stoichiometric relationships</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27947/11-particulate-nature-of-matter-and-chemical-change--1.html" title="1.1 Particulate nature of matter and chemical change ">1.1 Particulate nature of matter and chemical change </a></li><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27954/12-the-mole-concept-1.html" title="1.2 The mole concept">1.2 The mole concept</a></li><ul class="level-3 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 42px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../41469/comprehending-avogadros-constant-1.html" title="Comprehending Avogadro's constant">Comprehending Avogadro's constant</a></li></ul><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27958/13-reacting-masses-and-volumes--1.html" title="1.3 Reacting masses and volumes ">1.3 Reacting masses and volumes </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27960/topics-2-12-atomic-structure-1.html" title="Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure">Topics 2 & 12 : Atomic structure</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27961/21-the-nuclear-atom--1.html" title="2.1 The nuclear atom ">2.1 The nuclear atom </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27962/22-electron-configuration--1.html" title="2.2 Electron configuration ">2.2 Electron configuration </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27963/121-electrons-in-atoms--1.html" title="12.1 Electrons in atoms ">12.1 Electrons in atoms </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27965/topics-3-13-periodicity-1.html" title="Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity">Topics 3 & 13 : Periodicity</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27966/31-the-periodic-table-1.html" title="3.1 The periodic table">3.1 The periodic table</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27967/32-periodic-trends--1.html" title="3.2 Periodic trends ">3.2 Periodic trends </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27968/131-first-row-d-block-elements-1.html" title="13.1 First-row d-block elements">13.1 First-row d-block elements</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27970/132-coloured-complexes-1.html" title="13.2 Coloured complexes">13.2 Coloured complexes</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27971/topics-4-14-chemical-bonding-structure-1.html" title="Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure">Topics 4 & 14 : Chemical bonding & structure</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27972/41-ionic-bonding-structure--1.html" title="4.1 Ionic bonding & structure ">4.1 Ionic bonding & structure </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27973/42-covalent-bonding-1.html" title="4.2 Covalent bonding">4.2 Covalent bonding</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27974/43-covalent-structures-1--1.html" title="4.3 Covalent structures (1) ">4.3 Covalent structures (1) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27980/43-covalent-structures-2--1.html" title="4.3 Covalent structures (2) ">4.3 Covalent structures (2) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27981/44-intermolecular-forces--1.html" title="4.4 Intermolecular forces ">4.4 Intermolecular forces </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27982/45-metallic-bonding--1.html" title="4.5 Metallic bonding ">4.5 Metallic bonding </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27983/141-further-aspects-of-covalent-bonding-1.html" title="14.1 Further aspects of covalent bonding">14.1 Further aspects of covalent bonding</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27985/142-hybridization-1.html" title="14.2 Hybridization">14.2 Hybridization</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27987/topics-5-15-energeticsthermochemistry-1.html" title="Topics 5 & 15 : Energetics/thermochemistry">Topics 5 & 15 : Energetics/thermochemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27989/51-measuring-energy-changes-1.html" title="5.1 Measuring energy changes">5.1 Measuring energy changes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27991/52-hesss-law-1.html" title="5.2 Hess's Law">5.2 Hess's Law</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27992/53-bond-enthalpies--1.html" title="5.3 Bond enthalpies ">5.3 Bond enthalpies </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27993/151-energy-cycles-1.html" title="15.1 Energy cycles">15.1 Energy cycles</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27994/152-entropy-spontaneity-1.html" title="15.2 Entropy & spontaneity">15.2 Entropy & spontaneity</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27995/topics-6-16-chemical-kinetics-1.html" title="Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics">Topics 6 & 16 : Chemical kinetics</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27996/61-collision-theory-rates-of-reaction-1.html" title="6.1 Collision theory & rates of reaction">6.1 Collision theory & rates of reaction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27997/161-rate-expression-reaction-mechanism-1.html" title="16.1 Rate expression & reaction mechanism">16.1 Rate expression & reaction mechanism</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27998/162-activation-energy-1.html" title="16.2 Activation energy">16.2 Activation energy</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28001/topics-7-17-equilibrium--1.html" title="Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium ">Topics 7 & 17 : Equilibrium </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../27999/71-equilibrium-1.html" title="7.1 Equilibrium">7.1 Equilibrium</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28000/171-equilibrium-law-1.html" title="17.1 Equilibrium law">17.1 Equilibrium law</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28017/topics-8-18-acids-and-bases--1.html" title="Topics 8 & 18 : Acids and bases ">Topics 8 & 18 : Acids and bases </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28002/81-theories-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.1 Theories of acids & bases">8.1 Theories of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28010/82-properties-of-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.2 Properties of acids & bases">8.2 Properties of acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28011/83-ph-scale-1.html" title="8.3 pH scale">8.3 pH scale</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28012/84-strong-weak-acids-bases-1.html" title="8.4 Strong & weak acids & bases">8.4 Strong & weak acids & bases</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28013/85-acid-deposition--1.html" title="8.5 Acid deposition ">8.5 Acid deposition </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28014/181-lewis-acids-bases--1.html" title="18.1 Lewis acids & bases ">18.1 Lewis acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28015/182-calculations-involving-acids-bases--1.html" title="18.2 Calculations involving acids & bases ">18.2 Calculations involving acids & bases </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28016/183-ph-titration-curves-1.html" title="18.3 pH titration curves">18.3 pH titration curves</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28031/topics-9-19-redox-process-1.html" title="Topics 9 & 19 : Redox process">Topics 9 & 19 : Redox process</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28021/91-oxidation-reduction-1.html" title="9.1 Oxidation & reduction">9.1 Oxidation & reduction</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28022/92-electrochemical-cells-1.html" title="9.2 Electrochemical cells">9.2 Electrochemical cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28023/191-electrochemical-cells-ahl-1.html" title="19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)">19.1 Electrochemical cells (AHL)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28061/topics-10-20-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="Topics 10 & 20 : Organic chemistry">Topics 10 & 20 : Organic chemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28042/101-fundamentals-of-organic-chemistry-1.html" title="10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry">10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28043/1021-alkanes-alkenes-addition-polymers-1.html" title="10.2(1) Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers">10.2(1) Alkanes, alkenes & addition polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28044/1022-alcohols--1.html" title="10.2(2) Alcohols ">10.2(2) Alcohols </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28047/1023-halogenoalkanes-benzene-1.html" title="10.2(3) Halogenoalkanes & benzene">10.2(3) Halogenoalkanes & benzene</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28050/2011-nucleophilic-substitution--1.html" title="20.1(1) Nucleophilic substitution ">20.1(1) Nucleophilic substitution </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28051/2012-electrophilic-addition--1.html" title="20.1(2) Electrophilic addition ">20.1(2) Electrophilic addition </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28053/2013-electrophilic-substitution-1.html" title="20.1(3) Electrophilic substitution">20.1(3) Electrophilic substitution</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28054/2014-reduction-reactions--1.html" title="20.1(4) Reduction reactions ">20.1(4) Reduction reactions </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28056/202-synthetic-routes--1.html" title="20.2 Synthetic routes ">20.2 Synthetic routes </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28059/203-stereoisomerism--1.html" title="20.3 Stereoisomerism ">20.3 Stereoisomerism </a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28038/topics-11-21-measurement-data-processing-analysis-1.html" title="Topics 11 & 21 : Measurement, data processing & analysis">Topics 11 & 21 : Measurement, data processing & analysis</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28032/111-uncertainty-errors--1.html" title="11.1 Uncertainty & errors ">11.1 Uncertainty & errors </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28033/112-graphical-techniques-1.html" title="11.2 Graphical techniques">11.2 Graphical techniques</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28034/113-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-1.html" title="11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds">11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28039/211-spectroscopic-identification-of-organic-compounds-ahl-1.html" title="21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)">21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (AHL)</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28074/option-a-materials--1.html" title="Option A : Materials ">Option A : Materials </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28062/a1-introduction-to-materials-science--1.html" title="A.1 Introduction to materials science ">A.1 Introduction to materials science </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28063/a2-metals-and-icp-spectroscopy-1.html" title="A.2 Metals and ICP spectroscopy">A.2 Metals and ICP spectroscopy</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28065/a3-catalysts--1.html" title="A.3 Catalysts ">A.3 Catalysts </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28066/a4-liquid-crystals-1.html" title="A.4 Liquid crystals">A.4 Liquid crystals</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28067/a5-polymers-1.html" title="A.5 Polymers">A.5 Polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28069/a6-nanotechnology-1.html" title="A.6 Nanotechnology">A.6 Nanotechnology</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28070/a7-environmental-impact-plastics-1.html" title="A.7 Environmental impact - plastics">A.7 Environmental impact - plastics</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28071/a8-superconducting-metals-x-ray-crystallography--1.html" title="A.8 Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography ">A.8 Superconducting metals & X-ray crystallography </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28072/a9-condensation-polymers-1.html" title="A.9 Condensation polymers">A.9 Condensation polymers</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28073/a10-environmental-impact-heavy-metals-1.html" title="A.10 Environmental impact - heavy metals">A.10 Environmental impact - heavy metals</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28087/option-b-biochemistry-1.html" title="Option B : Biochemistry">Option B : Biochemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28076/b1-introduction-to-biochemistry--1.html" title="B.1 Introduction to biochemistry ">B.1 Introduction to biochemistry </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28078/b2-proteins-enzymes-1.html" title="B.2 Proteins & enzymes">B.2 Proteins & enzymes</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28079/b3-lipids-1.html" title="B.3 Lipids">B.3 Lipids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28080/b4-carbohydrates-1.html" title="B.4 Carbohydrates">B.4 Carbohydrates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28081/b5-vitamins-1.html" title="B.5 Vitamins">B.5 Vitamins</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28082/b6-biochemistry-the-environment-1.html" title="B.6 Biochemistry & the environment">B.6 Biochemistry & the environment</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28083/b7-proteins-enzymes-ahl--1.html" title="B.7 Proteins & enzymes (AHL) ">B.7 Proteins & enzymes (AHL) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28084/b8-nucleic-acids-1.html" title="B.8 Nucleic acids">B.8 Nucleic acids</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28085/b9-biological-pigments-1.html" title="B.9 Biological pigments">B.9 Biological pigments</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28086/b10-stereochemistry-in-biomolecules-1.html" title="B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules">B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28098/option-c-energy--1.html" title="Option C : Energy ">Option C : Energy </a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28088/c1-energy-sources--1.html" title="C.1 Energy sources ">C.1 Energy sources </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28089/c2-fossil-fuels-1.html" title="C.2 Fossil fuels">C.2 Fossil fuels</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28090/c3-nuclear-fusion-nuclear-fission-reactions-1.html" title="C.3 Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions">C.3 Nuclear fusion & nuclear fission reactions</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28091/c4-solar-energy--1.html" title="C.4 Solar energy ">C.4 Solar energy </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28094/c5-environmental-impact-global-warming--1.html" title="C.5 Environmental impact - global warming ">C.5 Environmental impact - global warming </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28095/c6-electrochemistry-rechargeable-batteries-fuel-cells-1.html" title="C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells">C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries & fuel cells</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28096/c7-nuclear-fusion-fission-hl--1.html" title="C.7 Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) ">C.7 Nuclear fusion & fission (HL) </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28097/c8-photovoltaic-cells-and-dsscs-1.html" title="C.8 Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs">C.8 Photovoltaic cells and DSSCs</a></li></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 14px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28109/option-d-medicinal-chemistry-1.html" title="Option D : Medicinal chemistry">Option D : Medicinal chemistry</a></li><ul class="level-2 "><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28099/d1-pharmaceutical-products-drug-action--1.html" title="D.1 Pharmaceutical products & drug action ">D.1 Pharmaceutical products & drug action </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28100/d2-aspirin-penicillin-1.html" title="D.2 Aspirin & penicillin">D.2 Aspirin & penicillin</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28101/d3-opiates-1.html" title="D.3 Opiates">D.3 Opiates</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28103/d4-ph-regulation-of-the-stomach-1.html" title="D.4 pH regulation of the stomach">D.4 pH regulation of the stomach</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28102/d5-antiviral-medications-1.html" title="D.5 Antiviral medications">D.5 Antiviral medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28104/d6-environmental-impact-of-some-medications-1.html" title="D.6 Environmental impact of some medications">D.6 Environmental impact of some medications</a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28105/d7-taxol-a-chiral-auxiliary-case-study--1.html" title="D.7 Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study ">D.7 Taxol - a chiral auxiliary case study </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28107/d8-nuclear-medicine--1.html" title="D.8 Nuclear medicine ">D.8 Nuclear medicine </a></li><li class="" style="padding-left: 28px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a href="../28108/d9-drug-detection-analysis-1.html" title="D.9 Drug detection & analysis">D.9 Drug detection & analysis</a></li></ul></ul><li class=" parent" style="padding-left: 0px"><i class="expander fa fa-caret-right "></i><a 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</div><section id="main-content"><div class="intro-card"><div class="bg-cover" style="background-image: url("/media/ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Nature%20of%20Science/antimony-gold-jupiters-wolf-171x270.png");"></div><img src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Nature%20of%20Science/antimony-gold-jupiters-wolf-171x270.png" style="display: none"><div class="content"><p class="text"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-fareast-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA"></span>This page is really a book review but it is very relevant to the Nature of Science with particular reference to chemistry. The book, Antimony, Gold, and Jupiter’s Wolf written by Peter Wothers provides concrete evidence as to how many NOS problems have arisen and been addressed in the past and also gives good background information on how theories develop and are later discarded as the prevailing paradigms change. If you get the chance to get hold of a copy it is well worth reading.</p></div></div><div class="blueBg"><h1>Antimony, Gold, and Jupiter’s Wolf</h1><p>All good chemists should be concerned not only with the facts, skills and concepts underpinning our subject but also its underlying culture. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Antimony-Gold-Jupiters-Wolf-elements/dp/0199652724">Antimony, Gold, and Jupiter’s Wolf: How The Elements Were Named</a> is written by Peter Wothers and is well worth reading. </p><hr class="hidden"><p><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Nature%20of%20Science/antimony-gold-jupiters-wolf-171x270.png" style="width: 171px; height: 270px; float: left;"></p><p>Wothers is a teaching fellow at the University of Cambridge in the UK. His book not only describes how the names of the elements have been arrived at but also contains a considerable amount of Nature of Science/Theory of Knowledge in the way it is narrated. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries chemistry developed from alchemy and the book describes how science itself developed - How can disputes be resolved? Should discoveries be shared freely? How can scientists communicate, collaborate, and form a consensus with each other, despite the geographical borders and language barriers that separate them? The book is well researched and documented. It contains many anecdotes and much material for chemistry (or pub!) quizzes. For example, France, Germany, Poland, America (and now Japan with nihonium) all have elements named after them but which is the only country to be named after an element? Argentina is the obvious answer but Cyprus is in the chicken and egg situation as no-one is sure whether copper is named after Cyprus or whether Cyprus, which in Roman times had many copper mines, is named after copper.</p><p>The book is aimed at the general reader rather than the specialised chemist but a good knowledge of chemistry will make you appreciate it all the more. Lavoisier’s careful weighings of reactants and products, which led to the overthrow of Phlogiston theory, are probably already well known. Perhaps less well known is that because of Lavoisier’s insistence that all acids contained oxygen rather than hydrogen, at least as we now define acids according to Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry – but not Lewis or Usanovich, the names of oxygen (acid producer) and hydrogen (water producer) should really be the other way round.</p><p>If I have one criticism it is that the book is rather western in nature. After comparing the seven known metals of ancient times with the seven planets in the geocentric view of the universe it tends to focus more on Europe in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when the modern concept of an element was defined and where many elements were first discovered. The book mentions that in 2016 the names of the last four unnamed elements were agreed by IUPAC – nihonium, moscovium, tennessine and organesson. – but there is no mention of the trans-fermium wars (see my earlier blog on <a href="chemistry/blog/29985/104ku-an-anachronism-in-a-gulag" title="<sub>104</sub>Ku - an anachronism in a gulag"> <sub>104</sub>Ku-an anachronism in a gulag</a>). During this period from the late 1960s until the 1990s some elements were known not only by different names but also by different symbols depending upon whether you were based in the former USSR or in the West. </p><hr class="hidden"></div><div class="greenBg"><h1>Classroom (or pub) quiz questions</h1><p>Here are a five more “pub” quiz questions on the elements. (If you come to my pub in South Wales then to put you in the TOK frame of mind you can have a pint of ‘Paradigm shift’ brewed by The Vale of Glamorgan brewery while you work out the answers.)</p><hr class="hidden"><p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="noborder" src="../../../ib/chemistry/images/2014%20Nature%20of%20Science/paradigm-shift-and-dark-matter(1).png" style="width: 500px; height: 431px;"></p><hr class="hidden"><p>1. Which village in Sweden gives its name to four different elements?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p>Ytterby. The elements are yttrium, erbium, terbium and ytterbium. Ytterby is a village on the island of Resarö which is part of the Stockholm archipelago. The (now closed) quartz and feldspar mines on Ytterby also contained a black ore called gadolinite from which these rare earth elements were obtained.</p></section><hr class="hidden"><p>2. Mendeleyev left spaces in his first periodic table to account for elements yet to be discovered. However he did include one element in the table that still had not been isolated and whose physical and chemical properties had not been determined – which element was it?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p>Fluorine. Although hydrofluoric acid and some salts containing fluorine were known, fluorine itself was not isolated until 1886 by Henri Moissan who electrolysed a solution of potassium hydrogen fluoride, KHF<sub>2</sub> in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride using inert platinum electrodes.</p></section><hr class="hidden"><p>3. Which country has two elements named after it?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p>France. The elements are francium and gallium. Francium was named by Marguerite Peret who discovered the alkali metal in 1939. Gallium was discovered some 64 years earlier in 1875 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Baoisbaudran. He named it gallium. He claimed it was in honour of his country (Gallia) although others have claimed he named it after himself as the Latin for the cock is <em>gallus</em>.</p></section><hr class="hidden"><p>4. Who discovered a new element on French soil when his country was actually at war with France?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p>Humphrey Davy. Davy was invited to France in 1812 by the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte to receive a medal for his work on isolating alkali metals even though France was at war with Great Britain. While he was there Ampère gave him a sample procured from the ashes of sea weed. Using his travelling laboratory, Davy was able to extract and identify iodine for the first time from the sample.</p></section><hr class="hidden"><p>5. What is Jupiter’s Wolf?</p><section class="tib-hiddenbox"><p>An ore of tungsten. Tungsten is present in the ore scheelite which was earlier known as tungste based on the Swedish for ‘heavy stone’. Another tungsten-containing ore is wolframite, (Fe,Mn)WO<sub>4</sub>. Wolframite was often found in the presence of tin ores and made the tin brittle when it was extracted. Tin, one of the earliest metals known, had a long association with Jupiter and wolframite was also known as Jupiter’s Wolf as it spoilt the tin (like a wolf). Tungsten has the symbol W due to its association with wolframite and its earlier name of wolfram.</p></section><hr class="hidden"></div></section></article><section id="media-extras"><div class="page-actions no-print navbar inline hidden-desktop"><div class="navbar-inner"><ul class="nav"><li><a class="presentation" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-desktop"></i></a></li><li><a class="print-section-blog" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-print"></i></a></li><li><a class="page-bookmarker" data-ticket="IB Docs (2) Team" data-pid="41492" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-star"></i></a></li><li><a class="personal-notes" href="#" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-file-text"></i></a></li><li><a class="" data-toggle="modal" href="#modal-feedback" onclick="return false;"><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></a></li><li class="dropdown"><a class="dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-target="#" href="#"><i class="fa fa-share-alt"></i></a><ul class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Twitter" href="https://twitter.com/share?text=%22How+the+elements+were+named+%22+-+via+%40InThinker+%23chemistry%0A&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F41492%2Fhow-the-elements-were-named-"><i class="fa fa-twitter-square"></i><span>Twitter</span></a></li><li><a class="" target="_blank" title="Share on Facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F41492%2Fhow-the-elements-were-named-&t=How+the+elements+were+named+"><i class="fa fa-facebook-square"></i><span>Facebook</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F41492%2Fhow-the-elements-were-named-"><i class="fa fa-linkedin-square"></i><span>LinkedIn</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="https://plus.google.com/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkib.net%2Fchemistry%2Fpage%2F41492%2Fhow-the-elements-were-named-"><i class="fa fa-google-plus-square"></i><span>Google +</span></a></li><li><a class="" href="mailto:?subject=How the elements were named &body=This page is really a book review but it is very relevant to the Nature of Science with particular reference to chemistry. 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